Cover
Title page
Copyright page
Contents
Preface
Chapter 1 - Requirement for Successful Production and Delivery of the Refined Vegetable Oils
1.1 - Crude oil
1.2 - Oilseeds
1.2.1 - Maturity
1.2.2 - Harvest Condition
1.2.2.1 - Wet Harvest Condition
1.2.2.2 - Dry Harvest Condition
1.2.3 - Handling of Seeds
1.2.4 - Seed Storage
1.2.5 - Insect Infestation
1.3 - Additional comments on oilseeds
1.4 - Fruit palm
1.5 - Groundnuts (peanuts) and tree nuts
1.6 - Crude oil handling, storage, and transport
1.7 - Concluding remarks
Chapter 2 - Basic Oil Chemistry
2.1 - Composition of oil
2.2 - Distinctions between oils and fats
2.3 - Fatty acids in common vegetable oils
2.3.1 - Saturated and Unsaturated Fatty Acids
2.4 - Typical behavior of fatty acids
2.4.1 - Unsaturated Fatty Acids
2.4.2 - Saturated Fatty Acids
2.5 - Objectives of proper oil processing
2.6 - Nontriglyceride components of oils
2.6.1 - Major Nontriglycerides
2.6.1.1 - Phospholipids
2.6.2 - Hydratable and Nonhydratable Phospholipids
2.6.3 - Free Fatty Acids
2.6.4 - Monoglycerides and Diglycerides
2.6.5 - Minor Nontriglycerides
2.6.6 - Tocopherols
2.6.7 - Sterols and Sterol Esters
2.6.8 - Volatile and Nonvolatile Compounds
2.6.9 - Color Compounds
2.6.10 - Trace Metals
2.7 - Oil analysis used in vegetable oil industry and their significance
2.8 - Significance of the analytical methods and results
2.8.1 - Iodine Value
2.8.2 - Free Fatty Acids
2.8.3 - Acid Value
2.8.4 - Peroxide Value
2.8.5 - para Anisidine Value
2.8.6 - Soap in Oil
2.8.7 - Conjugated Dienes
2.8.8 - Polar Material (TPM)
2.8.9 - Polymerized Triglycerides
2.8.10 - Solid Fat Index
2.8.11 - Solid Fat Content
2.8.12 - Fatty Acid Composition
2.8.13 - Fatty Acid Composition
2.8.14 - trans Fatty Acid
2.8.15 - Refined and Bleached Color Test
2.8.16 - Lovibond Color
2.8.17 - Chlorophyll Pigments
2.8.18 - Trace Metals (ICP)
2.8.19 - Trace Metals (Atomic Absorption Method)
2.8.20 - Phosphorus (Graphite Furnace)
2.8.21 - Phosphorus (ICP)
2.8.22 - Smoke Point, Flash Point, and Fire Point (Cleveland Open Cup method)
2.8.23 - Melt Point (Capillary Tube Method)
2.8.24 - Melt Point (Mettler Drop Point Method)
2.8.25 - Active Oxygen Method (AOM)
2.8.26 - Oil Stability Index (OSI)
2.8.27 - Refining Loss
2.8.28 - Neutral Oil Loss
2.8.28.1 - In Refining
2.8.28.2 - In Soap Stock
2.8.29 - Unsaponifiable Matter
2.8.30 - Saponification Value
Bibliography
Chapter 3 - Crude Oil Receiving, Storage, and Handling
3.1 - Crude oil receiving
3.1.1 - Crude Oil Quality in Trade
3.2 - FOSFA International (HeadquarterโLondon, UK)
3.3 - Membership
3.3.1 - Trading Members
3.3.2 - Broker Members (Full or Associate)
3.3.3 - Nontrading Members (Full or Associate)
3.3.4 - Superintendent Members
3.3.5 - Analyst Members (Full or Associate)
3.3.6 - Kindred Associations
3.3.7 - Benefits of Membership
3.3.7.1 - Truck or Rail Car Receipt
3.3.7.1.1 - Checking the Truck or Rail Car
3.3.7.1.2 - Checking Crude Oil Quality Prior to Unloading
3.3.7.2 - Barge Receipt (NIOP, NOPA)
3.4 - Crude oil unloading (truck or rail car)
3.4.1 - Impact of Steam Blowing for Line Clearing
3.4.1.1 - Avoid the Use of Air Blow or Improper Oil Discharge Into the Tank
3.5 - Crude oil storage
3.5.1 - Special Notes on Oil Stored at Terminals
Chapter 4 - Degumming
4.1 - Introduction
4.2 - Purpose of degumming
4.3 - Hydratable phospholipids and nonhydratable phospholipids
4.4 - Methods for degumming
4.4.1 - Water Degumming
4.4.1.1 - Critical Control Points in Water Degumming
4.4.1.2 - Oil Temperature
4.4.1.3 - Amount of Deionized Water
4.4.1.4 - Residence Time (Contact Time) in the Hydration Tank
4.4.1.5 - Agitation in the Hydration Tank
4.4.1.6 - Vacuum Drying of the Oil
4.4.1.7 - Vacuum Drying of the Gum
4.4.1.8 - Target Water-Degummed Oil Quality
4.4.1.9 - Target Quality of Dried Lecithin
4.4.2 - Acid Conditioning
4.4.2.1 - Critical Control Points in Acid Conditioning
4.4.2.2 - Oil Temperature
4.4.2.3 - Amount of Acid
4.4.2.4 - Mixing of Oil and Acid
4.4.2.5 - Conditioning Time (Retention Time)
4.4.2.6 - Agitation in the Conditioning Tank
4.4.3 - Acid Degumming
4.4.3.1 - Critical Control Points
4.4.3.2 - Target Acid Degummed Oil Quality
4.4.4 - Deep Degumming
4.4.4.1 - Superdegumming (Unilever Process)
4.4.4.1.1 - Critical Control Points in Superdegumming Process
4.4.4.1.2 - Addition of Flocculant
4.4.4.1.3 - Self-Cleaning Centrifuge
4.4.4.1.4 - Oil Flow Rate
4.4.4.1.5 - Target Oil Analysis
4.4.4.2 - Superdegumming (Alfa Laval Process)
4.4.4.2.1 - Process Description
4.4.4.2.2 - Target Oil Analysis
4.4.4.2.3 - Critical Control Points
4.4.4.3 - Combined Special Degumming and Neutralization
4.4.4.4 - TOP Degumming
4.4.4.5 - Organic Refining Process
4.4.4.6 - Soft Degumming
4.4.4.6.1 - Soft Degumming Process
4.4.4.6.2 - Critical Control Points
4.4.5 - Enzymatic Degumming
4.4.5.1 - Novozymes
4.4.5.2 - AB Enzymes GmbH (Feldbergstrasse, Darmstadt, Germany)
4.4.5.2.1 - Results of Degumming of Crude Soybean Oil With Rohalase PL-Xtra
4.4.5.2.2 - Results of Degumming of Crude Canola Oil With Rohalase PL-Xtra
4.4.5.2.3 - Effect of Reaction Time
4.4.5.3 - DSM N.V.
4.4.5.3.1 - Degumming Crude Oil With Lecitase Ultra PLA
4.4.5.3.2 - Critical Control Points for Degumming With Lecitase Ultra PLA
4.4.5.3.3 - Expected Results
4.4.5.3.4 - Degumming Crude Oil With PLC
4.4.5.3.5 - Degumming Crude Oil with PLA and PLC (US Patent No. 8,460,905 B2 Authors: Christopher L.G. Dayton & Flavio da S...
4.4.5.3.6 - PLC Degumming of Crude Soybean Oil, Followed By PLA1 Degumming
4.4.5.3.7 - PLC and PLA1 Degumming of Crude Soybean Oil Together
4.4.5.3.8 - Degumming Crude Oil With PLA and PLC Mixture [Using DSM Purifine (3G), Which is a Mixture of PLCย +ย PLA2ย +ย PI-PLC]
4.4.5.4 - Concluding Remarks on Enzymatic Degumming Process
4.4.5.5 - Real Benefit of Enzymatic Degumming Process
4.4.5.6 - Establishing the Yield Gain From Enzymatic Degumming
Chapter 5 - Refining
5.1 - Purpose of refining vegetable oil
5.1.1 - Major Nontriglycerides
5.1.2 - Minor Nontriglycerides
5.2 - Methods of oil refining
5.3 - Physical refining process
5.3.1 - Critical Control Points in the Physical Refining Process
5.3.2 - Bleached Oil Quality Parameters in the Physical Refining Process
5.3.3 - Troubleshooting Physical Refining Process
5.4 - Chemical refining process
5.4.1 - Batch Refining Process
5.4.2 - Critical Control Points in Batch Refining
5.4.2.1 - Agitator Speed
5.4.2.2 - Bleaching Clay
5.4.2.3 - Refining Loss
5.5 - Continuous chemical refining process
5.5.1 - Critical Control Points in Continuous Chemical Refining Process
5.5.1.1 - Analyzing Percent Neutral Oil in the Soap
5.5.1.2 - Comments
5.6 - Water washing refined oil
5.6.1 - Critical Control Points in Water Washing
5.6.2 - Importance of Oil Quality Parameters of the Refined and Water Washed Oil
5.6.3 - Importance of Having Low Ffa, Soap, and Phosphorus in the Refined and Water Washed Oil
5.6.3.1 - FFA
5.6.3.2 - Soap
5.6.3.3 - Bleaching
5.6.3.4 - Hydrogenation
5.6.3.5 - Phosphorus
5.6.4 - Comments on Chemical Refining Process
5.6.5 - Troubleshooting Chemical Refining Process
5.7 - Refining loss
5.7.1 - Manual Checks on the Oil Loss
5.8 - Short mix process
5.8.1 - Critical Control Points and Troubleshooting Short Mix Process
5.9 - Vacuum drying
5.9.1 - Critical Process Control Points in Vacuum Drying
5.10 - Soap splitting for recovering the fatty acids (acidulation of soap stock)
5.11 - Batch acidulation process
5.11.1 - Critical Control Points in Batch Acidulation Process
5.12 - Continuous acidulation process
5.13 - Troubleshooting acidulation process
5.14 - Cold chemical refining process for sunflower oil
5.15 - Modified physical refining process
5.15.1 - Critical Control Points in Modified Physical Refining Process
5.15.1.1 - Moisture in the Oil
5.15.1.2 - Amount of Caustic
5.16 - Modified caustic refining process
5.17 - Semiphysical refining process
Chapter 6 - Bleaching
6.1 - Introduction
6.2 - General operating steps in bleaching
6.3 - Dry bleaching versus wet bleaching
6.4 - Critical control points in dry bleaching
6.5 - Sampling frequency in bleaching process
6.6 - Troubleshooting dry bleaching process
6.7 - Wet bleaching process
6.8 - Critical control points in the wet bleaching process
6.9 - Two-step bleaching process (use of silica hydrogel)
6.9.1 - Benefits of Two-Step Bleaching Process (Use of Silica Hydrogel)
6.10 - Critical control points in two-step bleaching process
6.11 - Packed bed filtration in bleaching process
6.11.1 - Oil Quality Checks
6.12 - Critical control points in packed bed bleaching
6.13 - Filters for filtering bleached oil
6.13.1 - Plate and Frame Filters
6.13.2 - Pressure Leaf Filters (Horizontal and Vertical Tanks)
6.13.2.1 - Vertical Tank Vertical Pressure Leaf Filter
6.13.2.1.1 - Advantages
6.13.2.1.2 - Disadvantages
6.13.2.2 - Horizontal Tank Vertical Pressure Leaf Filter
6.13.2.2.1 - Advantages
6.13.2.2.2 - Disadvantages
6.14 - Bleaching agents
6.15 - Bleaching very green canola oil
6.15.1 - Critical Control Points
6.15.2 - Bleaching of the Treated Oil
Reading References
Chapter 7 - Hydrogenation
7.1 - Introduction
7.2 - Historical background of hydrogenation
7.3 - Understanding the process of hydrogenation
7.3.1 - Effects of Hydrogenation
7.4 - Hydrogenation process
7.4.1 - Batch Hydrogenation Reactor
7.4.2 - Operation of a Batch Hydrogenation Reactor
7.4.3 - Adiabatic Reaction Process
7.4.4 - Isothermal Process
7.4.5 - Deadend-Type Hydrogenation Reactor
7.4.6 - Recirculating-Type Hydrogenation Reactor
7.4.7 - Comparison Between the Deadend and the Recirculating Types of Reactors
7.4.8 - Continuous Hydrogenation Reactor
7.4.9 - Applicability of a Continuous Hydrogenation Reactor
7.5 - Critical control points in the hydrogenation process
7.5.1 - Catalyst Activity
7.5.2 - Manifestations of a Poor-Activity Catalyst
7.5.3 - Catalyst Selectivity
7.5.3.1 - Reaction Conditions That Promote High Selectivity
7.5.3.2 - Significance of Selectivity
7.5.3.3 - Catalyst Concentration
7.5.3.4 - Refined and Bleached Oil Quality
7.5.3.5 - Impact of Catalyst Poisoning
7.5.3.6 - Hydrogen Gas Quality
7.5.4 - Hydrogen Gas Dispersion
7.5.5 - Hydrogen Gas Venting From the Reactor
7.5.6 - Hydrogen Gas Supply
7.5.7 - Reaction Pressure
7.5.8 - Reaction Temperature
7.5.9 - Agitation
7.6 - Catalyst filtration
7.7 - Critical quality parameters in batch hydrogenation
7.8 - Trans fatty acids
7.8.1 - Manipulation of the Reactor Conditions
7.8.1.1 - Hydrogenation Under High Pressure
7.8.1.2 - Economic Impact of High-Pressure Reactors
7.8.2 - Higher Cost of the Reactor
7.8.3 - Heating Hydrogenated Oil before Filtration
7.8.4 - Larger-Filter Area or Dirt Load Capacity
7.8.5 - Higher Cost of Depreciation
7.8.6 - Higher Cost of Maintenance
7.8.7 - Increased Cost of Catalyst
7.8.8 - Higher Oil Loss in the Spent Catalyst
7.8.9 - Cost of Spent Catalyst Disposal
7.8.9.1 - Catalyst
7.8.9.2 - Summary of All-Cost Elements for High-Pressure Hydrogenation Process
7.8.9.3 - Use of Platinum or Other Precious Metal Catalysts
7.8.9.4 - Economics of Using Platinum Catalyst
7.8.9.5 - The Impact of Reheating of the Oil for Filtration
7.9 - Sources of hydrogenation catalysts
7.10 - Selection of hydrogenation catalyst
7.10.1 - Catalyst Activity
7.10.2 - Selectivity
7.10.3 - Filterability
7.10.4 - Physical Integrity
7.10.5 - Cost
7.11 - Commercially available nickel catalysts
7.12 - Troubleshooting the hydrogenation process
7.13 - Heat recovery in hydrogenation
Reading references
Chapter 8 - Deodorization
8.1 - Introduction
8.2 - Purpose of deodorization
8.3 - Description of the deodorization process
8.4 - Operating principles of deodorization
8.4.1 - Interpretation of the Previous Formula
8.5 - Critical control points for the deodorizing process
8.5.1 - Incoming Oil Quality
8.5.2 - Deaeration of the Oil Before Heating It for Deodorization
8.5.3 - Heating the Oil for Deodorization
8.5.4 - Operating Pressure (Vacuum)
8.5.5 - Operating Temperature
8.5.6 - Amount of Stripping Steam
8.5.7 - Batch Size or Flow Rate
8.5.8 - Citric Acid Addition
8.5.9 - Cooling Deodorized Oil
8.6 - Deodorized oil quality
8.6.1 - Physical Attributes
8.6.2 - Chemical Attributes
8.6.3 - Organoleptic AttributeโAOCS Method Cg-2-83 (09)
8.6.4 - Significance of the Deodorized Oil Quality Standards
8.7 - Types of deodorizers
8.7.1 - Batch Deodorizers
8.7.2 - Typical Operating Steps in a Batch Deodorizer
8.7.3 - Vacuum Sampler
8.7.4 - Semicontinuous Deodorizer
8.7.5 - Advantages of Semicontinuous Deodorizers
8.7.6 - Continuous Deodorizers
8.7.7 - Advantages of Continuous Deodorizers
8.7.8 - Disadvantages
8.7.9 - Residence Time Distribution in a Continuous Deodorizer
8.8 - Vacuum system for deodorizer
8.9 - Periodic cleaning of the deodorizer
8.9.1 - Batch Deodorizer
8.9.2 - Semicontinuous Deodorizer
8.9.3 - Continuous Deodorizer
Chapter 9 - Finished Product Storage and Handling
9.1 - Introduction
9.2 - Transfer and storage of deodorized products in tanks
9.3 - Deodorized oil storage tank
9.3.1 - Components of the Deodorized Oil Storage Tank
9.3.2 - Nitrogen Blanketing
9.3.2.1 - Pressure Sensor
9.3.2.2 - Vacuum Vent Valve
9.3.2.3 - Rupture Disc
9.3.2.4 - Checking Head Space Oxygen
9.3.2.5 - Nitrogen Sparger
9.3.3 - Temperature Indicator Controller
9.3.4 - Agitator
9.4 - Loading finished oils in trucks
9.5 - Unloading finished oil from tank trucks
9.6 - Packaged products stored in the warehouse
9.7 - Maintaining product quality in the warehouse
9.7.1 - Consumer Products
9.7.2 - Industrial Products
9.8 - Shipping of packaged products
Chapter 10 - Fundamentals of Fat Crystallization Related to Making Plastic and Pourable Shortenings
10.1 - Introduction
10.2 - Fat polymorphism
10.2.1 - Alpha Crystals
10.2.2 - Beta Prime Crystals
10.2.3 - Beta Crystals
10.2.4 - Melting Points of the Three Polymorphic Phases
10.2.5 - Crystal Packing Pattern of Alpha, Beta Prime, and Beta Crystals
10.3 - Triglyceride structure
10.3.1 - Fatty Acid Distribution in Trisaturated Triglycerides and Their Polymorphic Properties
10.3.2 - Summary of the Rule of Thumb on the Polymorphic Behavior of Triglyceride Molecules
10.4 - Fat crystallization
10.4.1 - Sequence of Events in Controlled Crystallization Process
10.4.2 - Typical Crystallization Process for Making Shortening
10.4.3 - Process Description
10.4.4 - What Happens to the Product?
10.4.5 - Primary and Secondary Crystal Bonds
10.4.6 - Primary Bonds
10.4.7 - Secondary Bonds
10.4.8 - Utilizing the Properties of the Primary and the Secondary Bonds
10.4.9 - Factors Determining the Physical Properties of Crystallized Fats
10.4.10 - General Rules of Fat Crystallization
10.4.11 - Critical Process Variables for Fat Crystallization
10.4.12 - Discussions on the Crystallization Process
10.4.13 - Establishment of Crystal Matrix
10.4.14 - Purpose of Tempering
10.4.15 - Comments on Tempering of Shortening Made and Used at a Large Bakery
10.4.16 - Tempering Procedure
10.4.17 - Benefits of Tempering Shortening
10.4.17.1 - Sample Tempered at 70ยฐF (21.1ยฐC)
10.4.17.2 - Sample Tempered at 90ยฐF (32.2ยฐC)
10.5 - Characterization of fat crystals
10.5.1 - Hardness
10.5.2 - Consistency (Smoothness/Graininess)
10.5.3 - Plasticity/Spreadability
10.5.4 - Structure
10.5.5 - Pourability
10.5.6 - Polymorphic Phase
10.6 - Palm oil in solid shortening
10.6.1 - Improving Crystallization Rate in Palm Oil Shortening
10.7 - Issues with the interesterified products
10.8 - Very highโhard stock content
10.9 - Pourable liquid shortening
10.9.1 - Product Description
10.9.2 - Special Properties
10.9.3 - Formulation
10.9.4 - Polymorphic Phase
10.9.5 - Processing Steps for Making Pourable Liquid Shortening
10.9.6 - Critical Control Points
10.9.6.1 - Formulation of the Mix
10.9.6.2 - Deaeration
10.9.6.3 - Freezer (Unit A) Outlet Temperature
10.9.6.4 - Tempering Temperature
10.9.6.5 - Tempering Time
10.9.6.6 - Agitation in the Tempering Tank
10.9.6.7 - Hot Water Temperature in the Jacket
10.9.6.8 - Storage Tank Design
10.9.6.9 - Storage of Pourable Shortening in the Warehouse
10.9.6.10 - Shipping (Transit)
10.9.7 - Fluidity of the Shortening
Reading References
Chapter 11 - Winterization and Fractionation of Selected Vegetable Oils
11.1 - Introduction
11.2 - Winterization of sunflower seed oil
11.2.1 - Cold Test Versus the Wax Content of Sunflower Oil
11.3 - Critical process variables for winterization of sunflower oil
11.4 - Troubleshooting
11.5 - Winterization of soybean oil
11.5.1 - Process Description
11.5.2 - Filtration
11.6 - Fractionation of palm oil
11.6.1 - Suitability of Palm Oil for Fractionation
11.6.2 - Methods for Fractionation
11.7 - Dry fractionation
11.7.1 - Precrystallizer
11.7.2 - Crystallizer
11.7.3 - Filtration
11.7.4 - Critical Control Points in Dry Fractionation
11.7.5 - Initial Oil Temperature
11.7.6 - Precrystallization
11.7.7 - Cooling Rate
11.7.8 - Holding Time in the Crystallizer
11.7.9 - Agitation in the Crystallizer
11.7.10 - Final Crystallizer Temperature
11.7.11 - Filtration
11.8 - Troubleshooting dry fractionation
11.9 - Multiple dry fractionation
11.9.1 - Benefits of Multiple Dry Fractionation of Palm Oil
11.10 - Wet fractionation with detergent (Lanza process)
11.11 - Solvent fractionation process
11.11.1 - Critical Control Points
11.11.2 - Comparison Between the Three Methods of Fractionation
Reading references
Chapter 12 - Insight to Oil Quality Management
12.1 - Introduction
12.2 - Managing oil quality
12.2.1 - Step #1: Have a Clear Product Objective
12.2.2 - Step #2: Have the Right Capability in Place
12.2.3 - Step#3: Measurements of Quality and Setting Standards
12.2.4 - Step #4: Measurement of Performance
12.2.5 - Step #5: Understand the Behavior of the Oil and Learn How to Protect It From Degradation
12.3 - Modes of oil decomposition
12.4 - Areas in oil quality management
12.5 - Summary of oil quality standards
Reading references
Chapter 13 - Trans Fat Alternatives and Challenges
13.1 - Introduction
13.1.1 - Pioneering by Europe
13.1.2 - Trans Fat Regulation in the United States
13.1.3 - Trans Fat in the United States Diet and the Sources
13.1.4 - Subsequent Developments in FDA Regulations on Trans Fat
13.1.5 - Trans Fat Regulation in Canada
13.2 - Nutritional labeling regulation
13.2.1 - Trans Fat Claims
13.2.2 - Nutrition Labeling Regulation
13.2.2.1 - Trans Fat Claims
13.2.3 - For 30-g Serving
13.2.4 - For 10-mL (9.2-g) Serving
13.2.5 - Influence of Trans Fats
13.3 - Source of trans fatty acids
13.4 - Technical alternatives available today
13.4.1 - Technical Solutions for Trans Fat Reduction
13.4.2 - Hydrogenation Under Special Conditions
13.4.3 - Use of Platinum Catalyst
13.4.4 - Interesterification
13.4.4.1 - Benefits of Interesterification
13.4.5 - Modified Composition Oils
13.4.6 - Use of Pourable Shortening
13.5 - Challenges
13.5.1 - Challenge #1: Getting Stable Liquid Oil in an Adequate Supply
13.5.2 - Challenge #2: Supplies of Modified Composition Seed Oils
13.5.3 - Challenge #3: Consumer Advocates in the United States
13.5.4 - Challenge #4: Use of Regular Soybean Oil is Reducing Shelf Life Stability of the Transesterified Shortening in Som...
13.5.5 - Challenge #5: Economic Challenge
13.6 - Interesterification Process
13.6.1 - Chemical Process
13.6.2 - Enzymatic Process
13.7 - Chemical interesterification process
13.7.1 - Description of a Chemical Interesterification Process
13.7.2 - Reaction Mixture
13.7.3 - Reaction Steps
13.7.4 - Critical Control Points in the Chemical Interesterification Process
13.7.4.1 - Oil Quality
13.7.4.2 - FFA
13.7.4.3 - PV
13.7.4.4 - Moisture
13.7.4.5 - Drying/Deaeration of the Oil Before Reaction
13.7.4.6 - Amount of Catalyst
13.7.4.7 - Agitation During Drying and the Reaction
13.7.4.8 - Reaction Time
13.7.4.9 - Neutralization of the Catalyst
13.7.4.10 - Separation of the Aqueous and the Oil Phase
13.7.4.11 - Bleaching
13.7.4.12 - Deodorization and Storage of the Final Product
13.7.5 - Questions Related to Chemical Interesterification
13.7.5.1 - How to Determine the Reaction End Point
13.7.5.2 - Stability of the Chemically Interesterified Product
13.7.5.3 - Losses in the Process
13.7.5.4 - Troubleshooting Random Interesterification Process
13.8 - Enzymatic Interesterification Process
13.8.1 - Introduction
13.8.2 - Catalyst
13.8.3 - Purpose of Immobilization of the Enzyme
13.8.4 - Reaction Steps in Enzymatic Interesterification Process
13.8.5 - Pretreatment
13.8.6 - Lipase Interesterification
13.8.7 - Batch Process
13.8.8 - Continuous Multiple Fixed Bed Process
13.8.9 - Single Fixed Bed Continuous Process
13.8.10 - Enzyme Activity
13.8.11 - Productivity
13.8.12 - Deodorization
13.9 - Comparison between the chemical and the enzymatic interesterification processes
Reading references
Chapter 14 - Familiarization With Process Equipment
14.1 - Introduction
14.2 - Processing equipment and accessories
14.2.1 - Process Equipment
14.2.2 - Process Accessories
14.2.3 - Process Instruments
14.2.4 - Process Equipment
14.2.4.1 - Tanks
14.2.4.2 - Crude Oil Storage Tanks
14.2.4.3 - Tanks for Hydrogenated Stocks
14.2.5 - Comments on the Atmospheric Vent
14.2.5.1 - Tanks for Deodorized Stocks
14.2.6 - Designs for Common Oil Storage Tanks
14.2.6.1 - Flat Bottom Tanks
14.2.6.1.1 - Advantage
14.2.6.1.2 - Disadvantage
14.2.6.2 - Large Sloped Bottom Tanks for Crude Oil Storage
14.2.6.3 - Cone Bottom Tanks
14.2.6.3.1 - Advantage
14.2.6.3.2 - Disadvantage
14.2.6.4 - Dish Bottom Tanks
14.2.6.5 - Jacketed Tanks
14.2.7 - Process Supervisorโs Responsibility Regarding the Tanks
14.2.7.1 - Centrifuges
14.2.7.2 - Converters
14.2.7.3 - Deodorizers
14.2.7.4 - Vacuum Dryer
14.2.7.5 - Vacuum Bleacher
14.2.7.6 - Filters
14.2.7.7 - Heat Exchangers
14.2.7.8 - Types of Heat Exchangers
14.2.7.9 - Coaxial Heat Exchangers
14.2.7.10 - Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers
14.2.7.11 - Plate and Frame Heat Exchangers
14.2.7.12 - Spiral Heat Exchanger
14.2.7.13 - Proper Installation Guidelines for Heat Exchangers
14.2.7.14 - Fouling of Heat Exchangers
14.2.7.15 - Frequency of Cleaning Heat Exchangers
14.2.7.16 - Troubleshooting Heat Exchangers
14.2.7.17 - Piping
14.2.7.17.1 - Oil Transfer Lines
14.2.7.17.2 - Steam Supply Lines
14.2.7.17.3 - Condensate Return Lines
14.2.7.17.4 - Compressed Air Supply Lines
14.2.7.17.5 - Nitrogen Supply Line
14.2.7.17.6 - Hydrogen Gas Supply Line
14.2.7.17.7 - Steam Tracing
14.2.7.17.8 - Caustic Lines
14.2.7.17.9 - Citric Acid
14.2.7.17.10 - Water Lines (Hot or Cold)
14.2.7.17.11 - Concentrated Sulfuric Acid (Used in Acidulation of Soap Stock)
14.2.8 - Process Accessories
14.2.8.1 - Vacuum Ejectors
14.2.8.2 - Noncondensing Versus Condensing Type of Vacuum Ejectors
14.2.8.3 - Direct Contact Condensing Versus Nondirect Contact Condensing Type Steam Ejectors
14.2.8.3.1 - Direct Contact Condensing Steam Ejector
14.2.8.3.2 - Nondirect Contact Condensing Type Steam Ejector
14.2.9 - Troubleshooting Ejectors
14.2.10 - Freeze-Condensing Vacuum System
14.2.10.1 - Advantages
14.2.10.2 - Disadvantage
14.2.11 - Agitators
14.2.11.1 - Examples
14.2.11.1.1 - Category #1
14.2.11.1.2 - Category #2
14.2.11.1.3 - Category #3
14.2.11.1.4 - Category #4
14.2.12 - Types of Mixers Used in an Oil Processing Plant
14.2.13 - Design Considerations for Selecting an Agitator
14.2.13.1 - Tank Information
14.2.13.2 - Property of the Liquid
14.2.13.3 - Service Application
14.2.14 - Pumps
14.2.14.1 - Guidelines for Proper Pump Installation
14.2.14.2 - Guidelines for Proper Pump Operation
14.2.15 - Valves
14.2.16 - Cooling Towers
14.2.16.1 - Application
14.2.16.2 - Mechanism of Cooling Water in a Cooling Tower
14.2.16.3 - Cooling Tower Design
14.2.16.4 - Efficiency of Cooling the Water
14.2.16.5 - Inadequate Cooling of the Water
14.2.16.6 - Consequence of Inadequate Water Cooling at the Cooling Tower
14.2.16.7 - Tower Cleaning Frequency
14.2.17 - Motors, Starters, Switches, Fans, and Blowers
14.2.18 - Compressors
14.2.18.1 - Special Notes on Compressors
14.2.19 - Air Dryers
14.2.20 - Steam Tracing
14.2.20.1 - Purpose of Steam Tracing
14.2.20.2 - Basics of Steam Tracing
14.2.21 - Steam Traps
14.2.21.1 - Types of Steam Traps
14.2.21.2 - Managing Steam Traps
14.2.21.3 - Proper Steam Trap Installation
14.2.22 - Steam Purifier
14.2.23 - Seals
14.2.24 - Process Instruments
Chapter 15 - Loss Management
15.1 - Introduction
15.2 - Definition of Losses
15.2.1 - Degrading and Variations
15.2.1.1 - Degrading
15.2.1.2 - Variations
15.3 - Factors Contributing to High Plant Losses in Degrading and Variations
15.4 - Elements of Good Loss Management
15.5 - Guidelines for Managing D&V
15.5.1 - Step 1: Identify all Material Flows at the Plant
15.5.2 - Step 2: Identify Key Loss Points
15.5.2.1 - Bulk Receipts of Refined Oils
15.5.2.2 - Finished Product Variations
15.5.3 - Return from Sales
15.5.4 - Dump
15.5.5 - Step 3: Determine the Causes for the Losses at Each Location
15.5.6 - Step 4: Define Solutions to Prevent Losses
15.5.7 - Step 5: Define Goals
15.5.8 - Step 6: Set Priorities for the Improvement Activity
15.5.9 - Step 7: Define Action Steps, Target Dates, Milestones, the Success Criteria, and the Method Used for Measuring Pro...
15.6 - Managing Plant Losses
15.6.1 - Known Losses
15.6.2 - Unknown Losses
15.6.3 - Key for Successful Loss Management
15.7 - Final Comments on Loss Management
15.8 - Samples of Forms Helpful for Tracking Variations
Chapter 16 - Plant Safety Procedures
16.1 - Introduction
16.2 - Plant safety
16.2.1 - General
16.3 - Safety agencies
16.3.1 - Occupational Safety and Health Administration
16.3.2 - American National Standards Institute
16.3.3 - National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
16.3.4 - The National Fire Protection Association
16.3.5 - Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System
16.4 - Areas of safety training required at the plant
16.4.1 - Fire and Explosion Safety
16.4.1.1 - Types of Fires Encountered
16.4.1.1.1 - Class A Fire
16.4.1.1.2 - Class B Fire
16.4.1.1.3 - Class C Fire
16.4.1.1.4 - Class D Fire
16.4.1.1.5 - Class K Fire
16.4.2 - Selection of Fire Extinguishers
16.4.3 - Hazards of Dry Chemical Extinguishers
16.4.4 - Compressed Gas Safety
16.4.5 - Recommended Procedure for the Preparation for Welding or Hot Work (Using Gas Torch for Metal Cutting)
16.4.6 - Chemical Safety
16.4.6.1 - Corrosive
16.4.7 - Significance of the Color Code and the Numbers for the Chemicals and the Degree of Hazard
16.4.8 - Improper Storage of Solvents
16.4.9 - Electrical Safety
16.4.9.1 - Electrical Shock
16.4.9.1.1 - Fuses
16.4.9.1.2 - Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter
16.4.9.1.3 - Lockout/Tagout
16.4.10 - Confined Space Entry Procedure
16.4.10.1 - Definition of a Confined Space
16.4.10.2 - Need for an Entry Procedure for a Confined Space
16.4.10.3 - What is a Tank Entry Procedure?
16.4.10.4 - Who Should Be Familiar With the Procedure?
16.4.10.5 - Why Must It Be Followed?
16.4.10.6 - Equipment Needed for Tank Entry
16.4.10.7 - Signs to Be Displayed on a Nitrogen-Blanketed Tank
16.4.10.8 - Preparation for Tank Entry
16.4.11 - The Tank Entry Permit Must be Filled out and Signed by two Persons
16.4.11.1 - Tank Entry Permit
16.4.12 - Entering the Tank
16.5 - Special notes
Chapter 17 - Regulatory Agencies and Their Roles in a Vegetable Oil Plant
17.1 - Introduction
17.2 - Agencies Overseeing Food Industry
17.2.1 - United States
17.2.2 - Europe
17.2.2.1 - Occupational Safety and Health Administration
17.2.2.2 - Role of OSHA in an Oil Plant
17.3 - Environmental Protection Agency
17.3.1 - Role of EPA in a Food Plant
17.4 - National Fire Protection Association
17.4.1 - NFPAโs Role in an Oil Plant
17.5 - US Department Of Agriculture
17.6 - Role Of USDA at an Edible Oil Plant
17.7 - US Food and Drug Administration
17.8 - Rabbinical Assembly
17.8.1 - Meat
17.8.2 - Dairy
17.8.3 - Pareve
17.9 - Role Of Rabbinical Assembly in an Oil Plant
17.10 - National Institute Of Oilseed Products
17.11 - National Oilseed Processors Association
17.12 - Federation of Oils, Seeds and Fats Associations
17.13 - FEDIOL
17.14 - European Food Safety Authority
17.15 - Food Safety Authority
17.16 - Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed
Index