Preface
Acknowledgement
Contents
About the Editors
1: Introduction to Lung Disease
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Overview of Lung Diseases
1.2.1 Asthma
1.2.2 COPD
1.2.3 Lung Cancer
1.2.4 Cystic Fibrosis
1.2.5 Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis
1.2.6 Tuberculosis
1.2.7 Influenza A Virus Infection
1.2.8 COVID-19
1.2.9 Conclusion
References
2: Introduction to Microbiome
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Microbiome Diversity and the Factors Affecting It
2.2.1 Childbirth
2.2.2 Metabolic Components of the Microbiota and Diet
2.2.3 The Significance of the Microbiome in Childhood
2.2.4 The Significance of Antibiotic Exposure
2.3 Disease and the Human Microbiome
2.3.1 Infectious Diseases
2.3.2 Cardiovascular (CVS) Diseases
2.3.3 Metabolic Disease and Obesity
2.3.4 Cancer
2.3.5 Lung Disease
2.3.6 Allergic Diseases
2.4 The Microbiome as a Therapeutic Target
2.4.1 Antibiotics
2.4.2 Microbial Biotherapies and Probiotics
2.5 Prebiotics and Diet Therapy
2.6 Microbial Restoration
2.7 Conclusion
References
3: Role of Microbiome in Inflammation During Tuberculosis
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Altered Gut Microbiome Diversity Associated Inflammation During Diseases
3.3 Tuberculosis and Its Therapy Relationship with Intestinal Dysbiosis
3.4 Gut Microbiota and Inflammatory Immune Activity in Tuberculosis
3.5 Microbiome-immune Crosstalk
3.6 Conclusion
References
4: Interplay of Microbiome, Inflammation, and Immunity in Inflammatory Lung Diseases
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Human Microbiota
4.2.1 Gut Microbiota and Intestinal Mucosa Development
4.3 Inflammation and Gut Microbiota
4.3.1 Inflammation Driving Capacity
4.3.2 Bacterial Neutralization of Inflammation
4.4 Microbiota & Immune System
4.4.1 Gut Microbiota and Innate Immune System
4.4.2 Gut Microbiota and Adaptative Immune System
4.5 Role of Microbiota in Allergic Ailments
4.6 Microbiota and Pulmonary System
4.6.1 Microbiota in Diseased Lung
4.7 Conclusion
References
5: Microbiome in Asthma
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Microbiome and Atopy
5.2.1 Immune Mechanisms Influenced by the Microbiome
5.2.2 Microbiome in Preclinical Asthma Models
5.2.3 The Respiratory MicrobiomeΒ΄s Role in Asthma
5.2.4 The Gut MicrobiomeΒ΄s Function in Asthma
5.3 Asthma Control, Therapy, and Management Using Microbiome Strategies
5.4 Conclusion
References
6: Microbiome in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Lung Microbiome
6.1.2 Lung Microbiome in COPD
6.1.3 Pathogenesis of COPD and Microbiome
6.2 Acute Exacerbation of COPD (AECOPD)
6.2.1 Fluctuations in Lung Microbiome Throughout Exacerbations of COPD
6.2.2 Microbiome as a Biomarker in COPD
6.2.3 Microbiome During Drug Therapy of COPD
6.2.3.1 Antibiotics
6.2.3.2 Corticosteroids
6.3 Dietary Fibre: A Beneficial treatment in COPD
6.4 Ξ² Agonists
6.5 Prebiotics and Probiotics
6.6 Pathogen Targeting
6.7 Future Aspects
References
7: Microbiome in Asthma-COPD Overlap (ACO)
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Asthma-COPD Overlap
7.2.1 Pathogenesis of ACO
7.2.2 Severity of ACOS
7.3 Lung Microbiome
7.3.1 Roles of the Lung Microbiome
7.3.2 Composition of Lung Microbiome in the Healthy Lung
7.3.3 Composition of the Lung Microbiome in Lung Diseases
7.4 Impact of Lung Microbiome in ACOS
7.4.1 Microbiome Mediated Inflammation and Immune Response
7.4.2 Microbiome Mediated Exacerbations
7.5 Treatment Strategies that Target Lung Microbiome and ACOS
7.6 Conclusion
References
8: Microbiome in Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS)
8.1 Introduction to ARDS
8.2 Pathogenesis of ARDS
8.3 Pulmonary Microbiome in Healthy and Critically Ill Patients
8.4 Lung Microbiota in ARDS
8.4.1 Microbial Burden
8.4.2 Enrichment of Lungs with Microbiota
8.5 Analysis of Respiratory Microbiota Associated with ARDS
8.5.1 Bacterial Identification and Characterization
8.5.2 Imaging Techniques
8.6 Patient Care in ARDS
8.6.1 Therapeutic Interventions
8.6.2 Critical Care
8.7 Conclusion and Future Directions
References
9: Role of Brain-Gut-Microbiome Axis in Depression Comorbid with Asthma
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Pathophysiology of ATA
9.2.1 Pathophysiology of Depression
9.2.2 Association of Monoamines and Other Neurotransmitters with Depression
9.2.3 Genetic Influence on the Progression of Depression
9.2.4 Stress Hormone in the Progression of Depression
9.2.5 Inflammatory Mediators in the Progression of Depression
9.2.6 Oxidative Stress (OS) in Depression
9.2.7 Comorbid Relation of ATA with Depression
9.2.8 The Human Lung Environment: Sterile or Not?
9.2.9 Gut and Lung Microbes in ATA
9.2.10 Influence of Immune Mechanism by the Microbiome
9.2.11 Communication Between Gut and Lung
9.2.12 Involvement of Gut and Lung Microbiome (GLM) Axis in ATA
9.2.13 GM in the Development of the Brain
9.2.14 Brain-Gut-Microbiome (BGM) Axis in Depression
9.2.15 Role of the Microbiota in Depression Comorbid with ATA
9.3 Conclusion
References
10: Understanding the Impact of the Microbiome on Lung Cancer
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Association of Microbiota with Lung Cancer
10.2.1 Determination of Microbial Diversity in Lung Cancer
10.2.2 Role of Microbiota in Lung Cancer Progression
10.3 Risk Factors of Microbiome Diversity in Lung Cancer
10.3.1 Upregulation of ERK & PI3K Signaling Pathways
10.3.2 Altered Expression of CD36
10.3.3 TP53 Mutation with Tobacco Smoking
10.3.4 COPD and Microbial Dysbiosis
10.3.5 Cytokines and NF-ΞΊΞ²1 Pathway
10.3.6 Mycobacterium Tuberculosis
10.3.7 Bacteroides Fragilis and Activation of STAT3
10.4 Use of Probiotics for Lung Cancer Prevention and Therapy
10.4.1 Usage of Different Species of Lactobacillus
10.4.2 Probiotics Mixture of Enterococcus Faecium & Saccharomyces Cerevisiae
10.4.3 Bifidobacterium Cocktail
10.4.3.1 Bacteroides (B. thetaiotaomicron & B. Fragilis)
10.5 Conclusion
References
11: Microbiome in Pulmonary Tuberculosis
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Tuberculosis and Its Pathophysiology
11.2.1 Microbiology
11.2.2 Interaction of Host-pathogen
11.2.3 Virulence
11.2.4 Immunology and Granulomas Formation
11.2.5 Apoptosis of Macrophage as a Defence Mechanism for M. tuberculosis Infection
11.3 Microbiome and Lung Health
11.3.1 Mucosal Biology
11.3.2 Lung Microbiome Determination
11.3.3 The Primary Source of Bacterial Microbiota in the Lungs: The Oral Microbiome
11.3.4 Alteration in the Lung Microbiome During Disease
11.3.5 Pulmonary Health Depends on the Gut Microbiome
11.3.5.1 Gut-Lung Axis
11.3.6 Dynamics of Diet, Gut, and Lung Microbiota
11.3.6.1 The Pulmonary Microbiota
11.4 The Orchestra of Gut Microbiota, Pulmonary Microbiota, and Host Immunity: Toll-like Receptor Signaling
11.4.1 Gut Microbiota and Local Immunity
11.4.2 Lung Microbiota and Local Immunity
11.4.3 Long Reach and Systemic Immune Modulation by Gut-lung Axis
11.5 Tuberculosis Infection and Gut Microbiome
11.5.1 Lung Microbiota Alterations in TB
11.6 Anti-TB Drug and Microbiome
11.6.1 Significance of Probiotic and Postbiotic in TB Pathogenesis
11.7 Conclusions
References
12: Lung Microbiome: Friend or Foe of Mycobacterium tuberculosis
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Lung Microbiome
12.3 Mtb Pathogenesis
12.4 Lung Microbiome in TB Infection
12.5 TB Treatment
12.6 The Effect of TB Treatment on Microbiome
12.7 Conclusion and Way Forward
References
13: Microbiome in Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Microbiome Development and Composition in Healthy Lungs
13.3 Microbiome in Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis
13.4 Microbiome Effect on IPF Prognosis and Exacerbation
13.5 A Gut-Lung Axis and Regulation of Host Defence in Chronic Lung Disease Aggravations: Evidence and Implications
13.6 Limitation
13.7 Conclusion
References
14: SARS-CoV-2 and Microbiota
14.1 SARS Covid-19
14.1.1 Epidemiology
14.1.2 Genomic and Viral Elements
14.1.3 Current Covid-19 Variants of Concern
14.1.4 Coronavirus Replication and Pathogenesis
14.1.5 Host and Reservoir
14.1.6 Transmission Route
14.1.7 Clinical Manifestations
14.1.7.1 SARS-CoV-2 Reinfection
14.1.8 Diagnosis
14.1.8.1 Physical Examination
14.1.8.2 Chest-X Ray and CT Imaging Examination
14.1.8.3 Laboratory Diagnosis
14.1.9 Current Anti-COVID-19 Treatments
14.1.9.1 Therapeutic Management of non-hospitalized COVID-19+ Adults
Dexamethasone
Remdesivir
14.1.10 Anti-SARS-CoV-2 and Monoclonal Antibodies
14.1.10.1 Baricitinib
14.1.10.2 Anticoagulants and Antiplatelet Medication
14.1.10.3 Tocilizumab
14.1.11 Long-Term Symptoms (Long Covid)
14.1.12 Prevention and Prophylaxis
14.1.13 Vaccines
14.2 The Microbiome
14.2.1 The Lung Microbiome-Covid-19 Link
14.2.2 The Role of Gut Microbiome in COVID-19 Infection
14.3 The Microbiota-Inflammation Axis in Covid-19 Disease
14.3.1 The Effect of Diet Lifestyle and Probiotic Treatment on Microbiota-Inflammation Axis in Covid-19 Disease
14.4 Limitation of the Current Research on Covid-19 and Microbiome
14.5 Conclusion
References
15: Microbiome in SARS-CoV-2 (Covid-19)
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Origin and Evolution
15.3 Structure
15.4 Mode of Transmission
15.5 Pathogenesis
15.6 Clinical Signs and Symptoms
15.7 Diagnosis
15.8 Management
15.9 Conclusion
References
16: Microbiome in Influenza-A Virus Infection
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Influenza Viruses
16.3 Host Factors Effect on of Influenza-A Viral Infection
16.4 The Bi-directional Relationship Between Influenza and the Microbiome
16.5 Inducing an Immuno-regulatory Microenvironment
16.6 Influenza Viral Infection Suppression by the Gut Microbiota
16.6.1 Suppression (Direct) of Viral Infection
16.6.2 Suppression (Indirect) of Viral Infection
16.6.3 Dysbiosis of Gut Microbiota in Flu Infection
16.6.4 Respiratory Tract Microbiome and Influenza-A Viral Infection
16.6.5 Microbiome Disturbance of the URT in Influenza-A Virus Infection in Humans and Ferrets
16.7 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
17: Microbiome in Upper Respiratory Tract Infections
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Anatomy of Upper Respiratory Tract (URT)
17.3 Dysbiosis of Upper Respiratory Tract microbiome
17.4 Analysis of Nasal Microbiome
17.5 Protection of Upper Respiratory Tract Microbiome
17.6 Development of Upper Respiratory Tract Microbiome
17.6.1 URT Microbiome in Infants
17.6.2 URT Microbiome in Adults
17.6.3 URT Microbiome of Elderly
17.7 Effects of Smoking on Upper Respiratory Tract Microbiome
17.8 Upper Respiratory Tract Infections (URTI)
17.8.1 Chronic Rhinosinusitis
17.8.2 Otitis Media
17.8.2.1 Otitis Media with Effusion
17.9 Methods for Microbiome Redevelopment
17.9.1 Bovine Colostrum
17.9.2 Probiotic Therapy
17.10 Conclusion
References
18: Challenges in Understanding the Lung Microbiota
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Sampling Methods
18.3 Contaminations
18.4 Microbial Diversity
18.5 DNA Extraction Methods and Statistical Analysis
18.6 Use of Antibiotics
18.7 The Life Style of the Respective Individual
18.8 Biofilm
18.9 Conclusion
References
19: Microbiome in Inflammatory Lung Diseases: Challenges and Future Prospects
19.1 Introduction
19.1.1 Interlink Between Inhabitants Microbial Flora and Mucosal Surfaces
19.1.2 Various Environmental Factors Associated with Microbial Status
19.1.2.1 Smoking
19.1.2.2 Breast-Feeding
19.1.2.3 Antibiotics
19.1.2.4 Diet
19.1.2.5 Pollution
19.2 Microbiome Pathogenic Role in Common Lung Disorders
19.2.1 Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
19.2.2 Cystic Fibrosis
19.2.3 Asthma
19.2.4 Pneumonia (Idiopathic or Ventilator)
19.2.5 Lung Cancer
19.2.6 Viral Infections of the Lung
19.3 Lung Microbiome and Modulation of the Host Immune System
19.3.1 The Respiratory Microbiome and Metabolism
19.3.2 Microbial Manipulations in the Treatment of Various Lung Disorders
19.3.2.1 Probiotics and Prebiotics
19.3.2.2 Supplementing Micronutrients to Regulate Gut Microbiota
19.4 Challenges and Future Prospects
References
20: Microbiota Targeted Via Nanotechnology for Lung Cancer Therapy: Challenges and Future Perspectives
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Gut and Lung Microbiome
20.2.1 Microbiome and Tissue Homeostasis
20.3 Role of Microbiome in Cancers
20.4 Nano-Bioengineering and Bio-nanotools: Types and Sub-Types
20.4.1 Cells and Cell Membrane-Derived Nanocarriers
20.4.2 Microbiotic Bio-nanocarriers
20.4.2.1 Bacterial Based Nano-Biocarriers
20.4.2.2 Bacterial Minicells
20.4.2.3 Magnetosomes
20.4.2.4 Bacterial Ghosts
20.4.2.5 Bacterial Polymer Derived Nanocarriers
20.4.2.6 Fungal Based Nano-biocarriers
20.4.3 Novel Nano-bio-devices
20.4.4 Ligand-Conjugated Nanocarriers
20.5 Bio-Nano Carriers for Clinical Management of LungCancer
20.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
Correction to: Interplay of Microbiome, Inflammation, and Immunity in Inflammatory Lung Diseases
Correction to: Chapter 4 in: G. Gupta et al. (eds.), Microbiome in Inflammatory Lung Diseases, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981...