Food Engineering: Principles and Practices

✍ Scribed by Sanjaya K. Dash, Pitam Chandra, Abhijit Kar

• Publisher: CRC Press
• Year: 2023
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 550
• Edition: 1
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

Students entering the food processing stream need to acquire knowledge of concepts and analytical skills together with the knowledge of their applications. Food Engineering: Principles and Practices explains the different unit operations in food processing with an emphasis on the principles of food engineering as well as the different types of equipment used for the purpose.

An approach in which propounding concepts and theory is immediately followed by numerical examples makes this book unique among food engineering textbooks. The examples, which are thoroughly explicated, have been taken, in general, from different competitive examinations and have been selected with practical applications for a better appreciation and understanding by the students. In the case of equipment, the constructional and operational features are discussed along with the specialty features of these types of equipment for better understanding their applications.

Key Features:

• Merges a presentation of food engineering fundamentals with a discussion of unit operations and food processing equipment;
• Reviews concepts comprehensively with suitable illustrations and problems;
• Provides an adequate number of examples with different levels of difficulty to give ample practice to students;
• Explains equipment units in three broad subheadings: construction and operation, salient features, and applications

This book is written as a textbook for students of food processing and food technology. Therefore, the book is meant for undergraduate and graduate students pursuing food processing and food technology courses. It also serves as a reference book for shop floor professionals and food processing consultants.

✦ Table of Contents

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
About the Authors
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Importance of Food Processing
1.2 Food Engineering Applications
1.3 About this Book
Section A Basic Concepts and Principles
Chapter 2 Dimensions and Units
2.1 Physical Quantity
2.2 Dimensions
2.3 Units
2.3.1 Fundamental Units
2.3.2 SI Derived Units
2.4 Extensive and Intensive Properties
2.5 Prefixes
2.6 Significant Figures
2.6.1 Rounding Off
2.6.2 Significant Figures in Calculations
2.7 Order of Magnitude
Check Your Understanding
Bibliography
Chapter 3 Material and Energy Balance
3.1 Basic Principles
3.2 Mass Balance
3.2.1 Applications in Different Unit Operations
3.2.2 Pearson Square Method
3.2.3 Calculation of Moisture Loss in Agricultural Commodities
3.3 Different Forms of Concentrations
3.4 Energy/Heat Balance
Check Your Understanding
Bibliography
Chapter 4 Reaction Kinetics
4.1 Chemical Kinetics and Order of Reaction
4.1.1 Zeroth Order Reaction
4.1.2 First Order Reaction
4.1.3 Second Order Reaction
4.1.4 Alternate Modes of Expressing the First and Second Order Reactions
4.1.5 Overall Order of the Reaction
4.1.6 Other Orders of Reactions
4.2 Factors Influencing Reaction Rate
4.3 Influence of Temperature on Rate of Reaction
Check Your Understanding
Bibliography
Chapter 5 Psychrometry
5.1 Psychrometric Properties of Air-Water Vapor Mixture
5.2 Psychrometric Chart and Its Applications
5.3 Psychrometric Processes
Check Your Understanding
Bibliography
Chapter 6 Fluid Properties and Flow Behaviors
6.1 Density and Specific Gravity
6.2 Viscosity and Viscoelasticity
6.2.1 Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids
6.2.2 Dynamic and Kinematic Viscosity
6.2.3 Effect of Temperature on Viscosity
6.2.4 Measurement of Viscosity
6.3 Laminar and Turbulent Flow
6.4 Boundary Layer
6.5 Relationship between Volume of Flow, Pressure Difference, and Viscosity of Fluid Flowing in a Tube
6.5.1 For Newtonian Fluid
6.5.2 For Non-Newtonian Fluid
6.6 Laminar Flow between Two Parallel Plates
6.7 Viscous Force on a Body Moving Through a Fluid
6.8 Terminal Velocity
6.9 Pressure at a Point in a Static Fluid
6.10 Equations of Motion
6.11 Bernoulli’s Theorem
6.12 Continuity Principle
6.13 Momentum Balance
6.14 Pressure Drop and Friction Coefficient for a Fluid Flow in a Pipe
6.15 Measurement of Fluid Flow
Check Your Understanding
Bibliography
Chapter 7 Heat and Mass Transfer
7.1 Modes of Heat Transfer
7.2 Conduction
7.2.1 Effect of Thermal Conductivity
7.2.2 Effect of Specific Heat
7.2.3 Effect of Thermal Diffusivity
7.2.4 Difference between Thermal Conductivity and Thermal Diffusivity
7.2.5 Steady-State Thermal Conduction
7.3 Convection
7.3.1 Natural Convection
7.3.2 Forced Convection
7.4 Conduction and Convection in Series
7.5 Unsteady State Heat Transfer
7.5.1 Heat Conduction through a Body with Internal Heat Generation
7.5.2 Unsteady State Conduction and Convection Heat Transfer with Negligible Internal Resistance
7.5.3 Heat Transfer with Finite Thermal Surface and Internal Resistances
7.6 Combined Conduction and Convection Heat Transfer in Finite Objects
7.7 Radiation Heat Transfer
7.7.1 Transmission of Thermal Radiation and Emissive Power
7.7.2 Emissivity, Absorptivity, Reflectivity, and Transmissivity
7.7.3 Radiation Shape Factor
7.7.4 Radiation Heat Exchange for Typical Situations
7.7.5 Radiation Heat Transfer Coefficient
7.8 Mass Transfer
7.8.1 Theory of Mass Transfer
7.9 Heat, Mass, and Momentum Transfer Analogies
7.9.1 Reynolds Analogy
7.9.2 Colburn Analogy
Check Your Understanding
Bibliography
Chapter 8 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
8.1 Basic Principles
8.2 Refrigeration Systems Based on Vapor Compression Cycle
8.2.1 Refrigeration Load and Coefficient of Performance
8.2.2 Subcooling and Superheating
8.2.3 Multistage Refrigeration System
8.3 Refrigeration Systems Based on Vapor Absorption Cycle
8.4 Air Conditioning
8.5 Cooling Loads
8.6 Evaporative Cooling
8.7 Cryogenics
8.8 Common Refrigerants
8.8.1 Classification and Nomenclature of Refrigerants
8.8.2 Properties of Common Refrigerants
Check Your Understanding
Bibliography
Chapter 9 Water Activity and Thermobacteriology
9.1 Water Activity
9.1.1 Importance of Water Activity in Storage of Food
9.1.2 Mathematical Expressions for Water Activity
9.1.3 Measurement of Water Activity
9.2 Classification of Microorganisms on the Basis of Temperature Range of Growth
9.3 Growth of Bacteria and Generation Time
9.4 Thermobacteriology
9.4.1 Effect of Heat on Microorganisms- D, z, and F Values
9.4.2 Factors Affecting Microbial Resistance to Heat
9.4.3 Relationship between Death Rate Constant and Activation Energy
9.4.4 Reaction Quotient
Check Your Understanding
Bibliography
Section B Unit Operations
Section B1: Primary Processing, Separation, Size Reduction and Mixing
Chapter 10 Primary Processing
10.1 Cleaning, Sorting, and Grading
10.1.1 Methods and Principles
10.1.2 Equipment
10.1.3 Washing
10.2 Peeling
10.2.1 Methods and Principles
10.2.2 Equipment
10.3 Blanching
10.3.1 Methods and Principles
10.3.2 Equipment
10.3.3 Considerations during Blanching
Check Your Understanding
Bibliography
Chapter 11 Size Reduction
11.1 Size Reduction of Hard Solids
11.1.1 Methods and Principles
11.1.2 Equipment
11.1.3 Accessories in Size Reduction Units
11.1.4 Important Considerations during Size Reduction
11.2 Size Reduction of Soft Solids
11.2.1 Methods and Principles
11.2.2 Equipment
Cutting Machines
Shredding, Crushing, Chopping, and Juice Extraction Machines
11.3 Size Reduction of Liquid Foods
11.3.1 Methods and Principles
11.3.2 Equipment
Check Your Understanding
Bibliography
Chapter 12 Mechanical Separation
12.1 Methods of Mechanical Separation
12.2 Filtration
12.2.1 Methods and Principles
12.2.2 Equipment
12.2.3 Filter Media
12.2.4 Filter Aids
12.3 Settling and Sedimentation
12.3.1 Methods and Principles
12.3.2 Equipment
12.4 Centrifugal Separation
12.4.1 Methods and Principles
12.4.2 Equipment
12.5 Separation of Fine Solids from Gas
12.5.1 Principle of Separation
12.5.2 Cyclone Separator
12.6 Membrane Separation
12.6.1 General Principles
12.6.2 Methods and Equipment
12.6.3 Membrane Concentration vs. Concentration by Evaporation
12.6.4 Pervaporation
Check Your Understanding
Bibliography
Chapter 13 Extraction
13.1 Methods and Principles
13.1.1 Methods of Extraction
13.1.2 Principles of Different Extraction Methods
13.1.3 Determination of Number of Stages Required for a Process
13.1.4 Stage Efficiency
13.1.5 Unsteady Mass Transfer in a Stage
13.2 Leaching (Solid-Liquid Extraction)
13.2.1 Principle
13.2.2 Equipment
13.3 Liquid-Liquid Extraction
13.3.1 Principle
Choice of Solvents
13.3.2 Equipment
13.4 Supercritical Fluid Extraction
13.4.1 Principle
13.4.2 Equipment
13.5 Advanced Extraction Technologies
13.5.1 Pulsed Electric Field-Assisted Extraction
13.5.2 Microwave-Assisted Extraction
13.5.3 Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction
13.5.4 Subcritical Water Extraction
13.5.5 High Pressure Assisted Extraction
13.5.6 Aqueous Two-Phase Extraction
13.5.7 Enzyme-Assisted Aqueous Extraction
Check Your Understanding
Bibliography
Chapter 14 Mixing and Emulsification
14.1 Mixing
14.1.1 Methods and Principles
14.1.2 Equipment
14.1.3 Factors Affecting the Selection of Mixing Equipment
14.2 Emulsification
14.2.1 Principle
14.2.2 Equipment
Check Your Understanding
Bibliography
B: Processing Involving Application of Heat
Chapter 15 Heat Exchange
15.1 Methods and Principles
15.1.1 Indirect Heat Exchange
15.1.2 Direct Heat Exchange
15.2 Heat Exchange Equipment
15.2.1 Classifications
15.2.2 Indirect Type Heat Exchangers
15.2.3 Direct Type Heat Exchangers
15.2.4 Comparison of Direct Type and Indirect Type Heat Exchangers
15.2.5 Other Special Types of Heat Exchangers
15.2.6 Heat Exchanger Considerations
Check Your Understanding
Bibliography
Chapter 16 Thermal Processing
16.1 Methods and Principles
16.1.1 Heat Processing Methods
16.1.2 Processing Time
16.1.3 Lethality Factor
16.1.4 Commercial Sterility
16.1.5 Considerations during Heat Processing
16.1.6 Calculation of Process Time
16.1.7 Spoilage Probability Evaluation for a Process
16.2 Unit Operations in a Canning Process
16.3 Exhausting
16.3.1 Methods
16.3.2 Equipment
16.4 Processing of Cans
16.4.1 Methods
16.4.2 Equipment
16.4.3 Processing of Glass Containers
16.4.4 Cooling after Retorting
16.5 Processing of Liquid Foods in Heat Exchangers
16.5.1 Methods
16.5.2 Equipment
16.5.3 Reducing Fouling in Indirect Heat Exchangers in UHT Systems
16.5.4 Packaging of UHT Processed Liquid Foods
16.6 Pasteurization of Foods
16.6.1 Methods
16.6.2 Equipment
Check Your Understanding
Bibliography
Chapter 17 Evaporation
17.1 Methods and Principles
17.1.1 Evaporation Process
17.1.2 Components of an Evaporation System
17.1.3 Performance of an Evaporator
17.1.4 Mass and Energy Balance in Evaporator
17.1.5 Boiling Point Rise
17.2 Equipment
17.2.1 Classifications
17.2.2 Open or Closed Pan Evaporator
17.2.3 Vacuum Pan Evaporator
17.2.4 Short-Tube Evaporator
17.2.5 Long Tube Vertical Evaporator
17.2.6 Forced Circulation Horizontal or Vertical Tube Type Evaporator
17.2.7 Agitated Thin Film Evaporators
17.2.8 Plate Evaporator
17.2.9 Centrifugal/Conical/Expanding Flow evaporator
17.2.10 Flash Evaporator
17.2.11 Rotary Evaporator
17.3 Evaporator Accessories
17.3.1 Condenser
17.3.2 Barometric Leg
17.3.3 Entrainment Separator
17.3.4 Vacuum Pump
17.4 Selection of Evaporator
Check Your Understanding
Objective Questions
Bibliography
Chapter 18 Distillation
18.1 General Principles
18.1.1 Pressure of a Mixture of Two Liquids
18.1.2 Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium
18.1.3 Relative Volatility of Binary Mixtures
18.2 Methods and Equipment
18.2.1 Simple or Double Distillation
18.2.2 Batch or Differential Distillation
18.2.3 Single-Stage Continuous Distillation
18.2.4 Batch Distillation with Reflux
18.2.5 Continuous Distillation with Rectification
18.2.6 Flash Distillation
18.2.7 Vacuum Distillation
18.2.8 Short Path Distillation
18.2.9 Packed Bed Distillation
18.2.10 Azeotropic Distillation
18.2.11 Multi-Component distillation
18.2.12 Fractional Distillation
18.2.13 Steam Distillation
Check Your Understanding
Bibliography
Chapter 19 Crystallization
19.1 Methods and Principles
19.1.1 Process of Crystallization
19.1.2 Multi-Stage Crystallization
19.2 Equipment
19.2.1 Cooling Type Crystallizer
19.2.2 Swenson-Walker Crystallizer
19.2.3 Evaporative Crystallizer
19.2.4 Oslo-Krystal Crystallizer
19.2.5 Vacuum Cooling Crystallization
Check Your Understanding
Bibliography
Chapter 20 Extrusion
20.1 Methods and Principles
20.1.1 Hot Extrusion and Cold Extrusion
20.1.2 Extruder Performance
20.2 Equipment
Salient Features
20.3 Applications
20.4 Changes in Food Due to Extrusion
Check Your Understanding
Bibliography
Chapter 21 Novel Heating Technologies
21.1 Ohmic Heating
21.1.1 Principle
21.1.2 Equipment
21.1.3 Applications
21.2 Infrared Heating
21.2.1 Principle
21.2.2 Equipment
Salient Features
21.2.3 Applications
21.3 Dielectric Heating
21.3.1 Principle
21.3.2 Equipment
21.3.3 Applications
Check Your Understanding
Bibliography
B: Processing Involving Removal of Heat or Moisture
Chapter 22 Drying
22.1 Methods and Principles
22.1.1 Mechanism of Moisture Removal
22.1.2 Amount of Moisture Removal
22.1.3 Equilibrium Moisture Content
22.1.4 Rate of Drying
22.1.5 Drying Curves
22.1.6 Analysis of Constant Rate Period of Drying
22.1.7 Analysis of Falling Rate Period of Drying
22.1.8 Moisture Ratio and Drying Constant
22.1.9 Drying Methods and Principles
22.2 Dryers
22.2.1 Classifications
22.2.2 Dryers for Solids and Pastes
22.2.3 Dryers for Liquid Foods
Check Your Understanding
Bibliography
Chapter 23 Chilling and Freezing
23.1 Methods and Principles
23.1.1 Chilled Storage
23.1.2 Frozen Storage
23.1.3 Evaporative Cooling
23.1.4 Vacuum Cooling
23.1.5 Cryogenic Freezing
23.2 Equipment
23.2.1 Classifications of Freezing/ Chilling Equipment
23.2.2 Direct Contact Freezers
23.2.3 Indirect Contact Freezers
23.2.4 Chilling with Ice
23.2.5 Evaporative Coolers
23.2.6 Cryogenic Freezers
23.3 Storage and Transportation of Chilled/Frozen Food
23.4 Selection of a Freezing Equipment
23.5 Thawing
23.5.1 Principle
23.5.2 Equipment/Methods
Check Your Understanding
Bibliography
B: Processing at/ near Ambient Temperature
Chapter 24 Non-Thermal Processing of Foods
24.1 Vacuum Processing
24.1.1 Principle
24.1.2 Equipment
24.1.3 Applications
24.2 High-Pressure Processing
24.2.1 Principle
24.2.2 Equipment
24.2.3 Applications
24.3 Pulsed Electric Field Processing
24.3.1 Principle
24.3.2 Equipment
24.3.3 Applications
24.4 Ultrasonication
24.4.1 Principle
24.4.2 Equipment
24.4.3 Applications
24.5 Gamma Irradiation/ Ionizing Radiation
24.5.1 Principle
24.5.2 Equipment
24.5.3 Applications
24.6 Ultraviolet Radiation Processing
24.6.1 Principle
24.6.2 Equipment
24.6.3 Applications
24.7 Pulsed X-ray Processing
24.8 Pulsed Light Processing
24.9 Cold Plasma Processing
24.10 Ozone Treatment
24.11 Electron Beam Processing
24.12 Static and Oscillating Magnetic Fields
24.13 Dense Phase Carbon Dioxide
24.14 High-voltage Arc Discharge
24.15 Sanitizer Washing
24.16 Combination of Non-Thermal Processing Technologies
Check Your Understanding
Bibliography
Chapter 25 Food Fermentation and Biotechnology Applications
25.1 Food Fermentation
25.1.1 Principle
25.1.2 Types of Fermentation Processes
25.1.3 Fermentation Equipment
25.1.4 Applications
25.2 Other Applications of Biotechnology in Food Processing
Check Your Understanding
Bibliography
Chapter 26 Nanomaterial Applications in Food Processing
26.1 Nanomaterials
26.2 Manufacture of Nanomaterials
26.3 Applications
Check Your Understanding
Bibliography
B: Food Packaging and Material Handling
Chapter 27 Filling and Packaging
27.1 Basics of Food Packaging
27.1.1 Basic Requirement of a Package
27.1.2 Classification of Packages
27.1.3 Packaging Materials
27.1.4 Manufacture of Packaging Enclosures
27.2 Equipment for Filling and Metering Food in Packages
27.2.1 Filling of Liquids and Pastes
27.2.2 Filling of Dry Products
27.2.3 Aseptic Filling
27.2.4 Hot Filling of Liquids
27.3 Shrink Packaging
27.3.1 Principle
27.3.2 Equipment
27.4 Modified Atmosphere Packaging
27.4.1 Principle
27.4.2 Equipment
27.5 Controlled Atmosphere Packaging
27.5.1 Principle
27.5.2 Equipment
27.6 Smart Packaging
Check Your Understanding
Bibliography
Chapter 28 Material Handling
28.1 Material Handling Equipment
28.1.1 Classifications
28.1.2 Belt Conveyor
28.1.3 Roller Conveyor
28.1.4 Chain Conveyor
28.1.5 Screw Conveyor
28.1.6 Vibrating Conveyors
28.1.7 Pneumatic Conveyors/Elevators
28.1.8 Bucket Conveyor/Elevator
28.1.9 Magnetic Conveyor/Elevator
28.1.10 Vertical Conveyors
28.1.11 Other Systems
28.2 Selection of a Conveyor System
Check Your Understanding
Bibliography
Section C Food Quality, Safety and Waste Disposal
Chapter 29 Shelf-Life Estimation of Food Products
29.1 Importance of Shelf-Life Determination
29.2 Factors Influencing Shelf Life
29.2.1 Intrinsic Factors
29.2.2 Extrinsic Factors
29.3 Kinetics of Shelf-Life Deterioration
29.4 Determination of Shelf Life
29.4.1 Direct Method
29.4.2 Indirect Methods
Check Your Understanding
Bibliography
Chapter 30 Food Quality, Safety, and Hygiene
30.1 Food Hygiene and Sanitation
30.1.1 Sources of Contamination
30.1.2 Reduction of Contamination
30.1.3 Cleaning in Place
30.2 Food Safety and Quality
30.2.1 Food Safety Attributes
30.2.2 Food Quality Attributes
30.2.3 Food Safety Hazards
30.2.4 Essential Requirements for Food Safety Assurance
30.2.5 Food Quality and Safety Management
30.3 Food Regulations
30.4 Food Standards
30.5 International Initiatives
Check Your Understanding
Bibliography
Chapter 31 Effluent Treatment
31.1 General Principles
31.1.1 Wastes and Effluent Characteristics
31.1.2 Natural Purification Ability of a Water Stream
31.1.3 Water Usage and Wastewater Generation
31.2 Methods of Treatment
31.2.1 Physical Methods
31.2.2 Chemical Methods
31.2.3 Biological Methods
31.2.4 Advanced Treatment Methods
31.3 Equipment
31.3.1 Settling Tank
31.3.2 Filter
31.3.3 Centrifuge
31.3.4 Treatment Plant
31.4 Value Addition to the Waste
31.5 Zero Solid Discharge
Check Your Understanding
Bibliography
Annexures
Index