Cover
Tribology and Fundamentals of Abrasive Machining ProcessesThird EditionBahman AzarhoushangIoan D. MarinescuW. Brian RoweBor ...
Copyright
Dedication
Contents
List of contributors
About the authors
Bahman Azarhoushang
Dr Ioan D. Marinescu
Dr W. Brian Rowe
Dr Boris Dimitrov
Dr Hitoshi Ohmori
Preface to the first edition
Preface to the second edition
Preface to the third edition
Acknowledgments
Part One Science of abrasive machining and tribology (introduction)
1. Abrasives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Corundum
1.2.1 Manufacture of corundum
1.2.1.1 Electrofusion
1.2.1.2 Sol-gel chemical precipitation and sintering
1.3 Silicon carbide
1.4 Diamond
1.4.1 Natural diamond
1.4.2 Synthetic diamond
1.4.3 Coating of diamond abrasives
1.5 Cubic boron nitride
1.5.1 Coating of cubic boron nitride abrasives
1.6 Lapping and polishing abrasives
1.6.1 Boron carbide
1.6.2 Garnet
1.6.3 Chromium oxide
1.6.4 Pumice
1.6.5 Beryllium oxide
1.6.6 Quartz (silica)
1.6.7 Iron oxide
1.6.8 Emery
1.6.9 Silica carbide
1.6.10 Glass
1.6.11 Vienna lime
1.6.12 Kaolin
1.6.13 Chalk
1.6.14 Barite (barium sulfate)
1.6.15 Talc
1.6.16 Tripoli
1.7 Abrasive sizes and shapes
References
2. Abrasive tools
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Bonded abrasives
2.2.1 Bonds
2.2.1.1 Vitrified bonds
2.2.1.2 Resin bonds
2.2.1.3 Single-layer metal bonds
2.2.1.4 Multilayer metal bonds
2.2.1.5 Hybrid bonds
2.2.1.6 Other bond systems
2.2.2 Characterization of grinding tools
2.2.2.1 Conventional grinding tools
2.2.2.2 Superabrasive grinding tools
2.2.3 Honing and superfinishing tools
2.3 Coated abrasives and abrasive belts
2.3.1 Backing materials for coated abrasives
2.3.2 Characterization of coated abrasives
2.3.3 Abrasive grains and grain sizes for abrasive belts
2.3.4 Joint and belt splice types
2.3.5 Contact wheels
2.3.6 Comparison of grinding wheels and abrasive belts
2.3.7 Abrasive belts in furniture production
2.4 Loose abrasives and abrasive pastes
2.4.1 Binders for abrasive pastes
References
3. Abrasive machining processes
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Bonded and coated abrasive processes
3.2.1 Grinding with bonded abrasive tools
3.2.2 Grinding with coated abrasive tools (belt grinding)
3.2.3 Honing and superfinishing
3.3 Loose abrasive processes
3.3.1 Lapping
3.3.2 Polishing
3.3.3 Mass finishing
3.3.3.1 Tumbling (rotary barrel finishing)
3.3.3.2 Vibratory finishing
3.3.3.3 Drag finishing
3.3.3.4 Summary
3.3.4 Abrasive flow machining
3.3.5 Magnetorheological finishing
3.3.6 Chemomechanical polishing
3.3.7 Abrasive blasting
References
4. Tribosystems of abrasive machining processes
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Tribological principles
4.3 Structure of tribomechanical processing
4.4 Tribosystems in abrasive machining
4.4.1 Bonded abrasive processes
4.4.2 Tool conditioning processes
4.4.3 Loose abrasive processes
4.4.4 Basic parameters of the tribosystem structure
4.5 Modeling tribosystems of abrasive processes
4.5.1 Influence of work material in modeling
4.5.2 Influence of shape and size of the contact surface
4.5.3 Influence and measurement of cutting forces
4.6 Conclusions
References
Part Two Principles of abrasive machining processes
5. Kinematics of bonded abrasive machining processes
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Chip thickness or grain penetration depth
5.3 Equivalent chip thickness
5.4 Cutting edge density
5.5 Grain spacing
5.6 Variability of active cutting edge density
5.7 Mean chip volume
5.8 Grain shapes
5.9 Geometric contact length
5.10 Kinematic contact length
5.11 Mean uncut chip cross-sectional area
5.12 Irregular grain spacing
5.13 Irregular grain protrusion
5.14 Contact times and tribological implications
References
6. Material removal mechanisms of bonded abrasive machining (forces, friction, and energy)
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Removal mechanism of ductile materials
6.2.1 Cutting, ploughing, and rubbing
6.3 Removal mechanism of brittle materials
6.3.1 Crack initiation and propagation
6.3.2 Ductile grinding of brittle materials
6.4 Forces and power
6.5 Force ratio and friction coefficient
6.6 Specific energy
6.7 Size effect
6.8 Chip formation, sliding, and ploughing energies
6.9 Specific removal rate
6.10 Energy partition
References
7. Contact mechanics
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Contact area
7.3 Contact length
7.3.1 Contact length due to deflection
7.3.2 Contact length due to the depth of cut
7.3.3 Combined deflection and depth of cut
7.4 Smooth body analysis
7.5 Rough surface analysis
7.6 Experimental measurements of the roughness factor
7.6.1 Comparison with measurements by Verkerk
7.6.2 Effect of depth of cut
7.6.3 Effect of workpiece speed
7.6.4 Evaluation of roughness factor and contact length
7.7 Elastic stresses due to abrasion
7.8 Indentation mechanics approach
7.9 Summary
References
8. Grinding wheel macrodesign and microtopography
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Wheel body and shape
8.2.1 Design of high-speed wheels
8.2.2 Stress calculation and finite element method simulation
8.2.3 Wheel bodies made of carbon fiber reinforced polymers
8.2.4 Vibration and chatter suppression
8.2.5 Joining the abrasive layer to the wheel body
8.2.6 Wheel mounting
8.2.7 Clamping forces
8.2.7.1 Clamping force to compensate for wheel mass
8.2.7.2 Clamping force for out-of-balance wheels and motor power surges
8.2.7.3 Clamping force for wheel reaction to workpiece
8.2.7.4 Total clamping force
8.2.8 Wheel balancing
8.2.9 Grinding wheel failure
8.2.9.1 Determining bursting speed
8.3 The importance of microtopography
8.4 Topographical definitions
8.4.1 Cutting edge dullness
8.4.2 Cutting edge density
8.4.3 Effective porosity ratio
8.4.4 Secondary grits
8.5 Measurement techniques for grinding tool microtopography
8.5.1 Stylus techniques
8.5.2 Microscopy
8.5.3 Image processing GrainVision
8.5.4 Replication techniques
8.6 Topography changes in grinding
References
9. Grinding tool conditioning
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Dressing, cleaning, and structuring
9.3 Dressing methods
9.4 Mechanical dressing processes
9.5 Tribology of mechanical dressing
9.6 Diamond types for dressing tools
9.7 Dressing with stationary diamond tools
9.7.1 Types of stationary diamond dressers
9.7.2 Stationary dressing tools—kinematics and process parameters
9.7.3 Dressing overlap ratio, Ud, and dressing feed speed, vfad
9.7.4 Dressing depth of cut, aed
9.7.5 Changes in grinding tool microtopography
9.8 Rotary dressing tools
9.8.1 Rotary diamond dresser production methods
9.9 Diamond form rollers
9.9.1 Types of diamond form rollers
9.9.2 Kinematics and process parameters
9.9.3 Dressing speed ratio, qd
9.9.4 Dressing overlap degree, Ud
9.9.5 Dressing depth of cut, aed
9.9.6 Diameter ratio, xR
9.9.7 Changes in grinding tool microtopography
9.10 Diamond profile rollers
9.10.1 Kinematics and process parameters
9.10.2 Dressing speed ratio, qd, and diameter ratio, xR
9.10.3 Dressing infeed, frd [μm/Us]
9.10.4 Rollout revolutions, nrd
9.10.5 Rotation ratio, xn
9.10.6 Changes in the grinding tool microtopography
9.11 Diamond cup dresser
9.12 Continuous dressing
9.13 Crushing
9.14 Touch dressing
9.15 Cross-axis dressing
9.16 Wear and tool life of diamond dressing tools
9.16.1 Dressing wear ratio, Gd
9.17 Mechanical dressing of resin-, metal-, and hybrid-bonded grinding wheels
9.18 Sharpening
9.19 Removal mechanisms in mechanical dressing processes
9.19.1 Mechanism of dressing vitrified bonded grinding tools
9.19.2 Mechanism of dressing resin-, hybrid-, and metal-bonded superabrasive grinding tools
9.20 Nonconventional conditioning processes
9.20.1 Laser conditioning
9.20.1.1 Laser profiling
9.20.1.2 Laser structuring
9.20.1.3 Material removal mechanisms of laser conditioning
9.20.2 Electrical conditioning processes
9.20.3 Electrolytic in-process dressing
9.20.3.1 Electrical aspects of electrolytic in-process dressing grinding
9.20.3.2 Applications of electrolytic in-process dressing grinding
9.20.4 Electrochemical in-process Controlled Dressing (ECD)
9.20.5 Electro-discharge dressing (EDD)
9.20.5 Ultrasonic-assisted dressing
9.21 Summary
References
10. Principles of grinding processes
10.1 Overview of the grinding process
10.1.1 Factors that influence grinding
10.1.1.1 Conditioning and dressing
10.1.1.2 Process characteristics
10.1.2 Equivalent grinding tool diameter
10.1.3 Kinematic or geometric contact length
10.1.4 Cutting speed
10.1.4.1 Reducing chip thickness
10.1.4.2 Decreased cutting forces
10.1.4.3 Increase in spindle power
10.1.4.4 Decrease in tool wear
10.1.4.5 Cutting temperature
10.1.4.6 Improvement in surface quality
10.1.4.7 Summary
10.1.5 Feed speed
10.1.5.1 Increase in cutting forces/cutting power
10.1.5.2 Deterioration in surface quality
10.1.5.3 Summary
10.1.6 Grinding speed ratio
10.1.7 Depth of cut
10.1.7.1 Increase in grinding forces
10.1.7.2 Increase in grinding temperature
10.1.7.3 Summary
10.1.8 Material removal rate and specific material removal rate
10.1.9 Material removal volume
10.1.10 Summary of factors that influence grinding
10.2 External cylindrical grinding between centers
10.2.1 Up-grinding mode
10.2.2 Process input parameters
10.2.3 Workpiece rotational speed and workpiece peripheral speed
10.2.4 Grinding speed ratio
10.2.5 External cylindrical longitudinal grinding
10.2.5.1 Process input parameters
10.2.5.2 Roughing and finishing zones of the grinding wheel and grinding overlap ratio
10.2.5.3 Specific material removal rate and depth of cut
10.2.5.4 Edge wear on grinding wheels
10.2.6 External cylindrical plunge grinding
10.2.6.1 External cylindrical angular plunge grinding
10.2.6.2 Process input parameters
10.2.6.3 Rotational speed ratio
10.2.6.4 Specific material removal rate
10.2.6.5 Face surface or shoulder grinding
10.2.7 Summary
10.3 External cylindrical centerless grinding
10.3.1 Work rest
10.3.2 Grinding gap
10.3.3 Workpiece roundness
10.3.4 Grinding speed ratio
10.3.5 Centerless through-feed grinding
10.3.5.1 Form of the control wheel
10.3.5.2 Form of the grinding wheel
10.3.5.3 Front and rear guide plates
10.3.5.4 Specific material removal rate
10.3.6 Centerless plunge grinding
10.3.6.1 Rotational speed ratio
10.3.6.2 Specific material removal rate
10.3.7 Limit charts
10.3.8 Process optimization and cutting speed
10.4 Surface grinding
10.4.1 Process input parameters
10.4.2 Interaction between the feed speed and the radial depth of cut-in surface grinding
10.4.3 Grinding tool wear
10.4.4 Groove or profile grinding
10.4.4.1 Grinding speed ratio
10.4.4.2 Specific material removal rate
10.4.4.3 Continuous dressing in creep-feed grinding
10.4.5 Reciprocating or surface grinding
10.4.5.1 Specific material removal rate
10.4.5.2 Grinding overlap ratio
10.4.5.3 Process strategy
10.4.6 Comparison of reciprocating and creep-feed grinding
10.4.7 High-efficiency deep grinding
10.4.8 Up-grinding and down-grinding modes
10.4.9 Summary
10.5 Internal cylindrical grinding
10.5.1 Tool dimensions and their specifications
10.5.2 Workpiece clamping
10.5.3 Cutting speed
10.5.4 Grinding speed ratio
10.5.5 Tool oscillation
10.5.6 Internal cylindrical longitudinal grinding
10.5.6.1 Roughing and finishing zones of the grinding tool and grinding overlap ratio
10.5.6.2 Specific material removal rate and depth of cut
10.5.6.3 Grinding tool edge wear
10.5.7 Internal cylindrical plunge grinding
10.5.7.1 Specific material removal rate
10.5.7.2 Grinding strategies
10.5.8 Combined internal and external cylindrical grinding
References
11. Cutting temperature and energy partitioning in grinding
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Heat generation and dissipation
11.2.1 Process power
11.2.2 Heat input distribution
11.2.3 Heat pulses
11.3 Measuring and estimating temperatures
11.3.1 Temperature measurement
11.3.2 Physical concepts and assumptions
11.3.3 Temperature estimation
11.4 Heat partitioning
11.4.1 Workpiece partition ratio
11.4.2 Moving heat source solution
11.4.3 Workpiece speed and Peclet number
11.4.4 Maximum contact-surface and workpiece surface temperatures
11.4.5 Example: estimation of grinding temperature
11.4.6 Effect of heat distribution
11.4.7 Workpiece–grain heat partition and heat flow into the tool
11.4.8 Heat flow into chips
11.4.9 Heat flow into the cutting fluid
11.5 Workpiece temperatures
11.5.1 Maximum workpiece temperature
11.5.2 Subsurface temperature
11.5.3 Transient temperature
11.5.4 Cut-in and cut-out temperatures
11.5.5 Temperature approximation formulas
11.5.5.1 Uniform heat flux
11.5.5.2 Triangular heat flux
11.5.5.3 Trapezoidal heat flux
11.6 Case studies
11.6.1 Shallow-cut grinding—10mm cut
11.6.2 Deep creep-feed grinding—5mm cut
11.6.3 Effect of abrasive type and varying depth of cut
11.6.4 Effects of specific energy and varying convection factor
11.6.5 High-efficiency deep grinding
References
12. Kinematics and material removal mechanisms of loose abrasive machining
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Lapping
12.2.1 Material removal mechanisms
12.2.2 Process kinematics
12.2.3 Kinematics of the plane-parallel lapping process
12.3 Polishing
12.3.1 Material removal in mechanical polishing
12.3.2 Theoretical modeling of mechanical polishing with soft pads
12.3.3 Chemical and mechanical polishing combinations
12.4 Mass finishing and tumbling
12.5 Chemomechanical polishing
12.5.1 Magnetic float polishing
12.5.2 Chemical reactions
12.5.3 Process kinematics and within-wafer-nonuniformity
12.5.4 Material removal mechanism
References
Part Three Tool wear, induced surface integrity of workpiece material, and machineability of materials
13. Mechanisms of tool wear
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Wear types and mechanisms
13.2.1 Abrasive wear
13.2.2 Adhesive wear and workpiece material deposition
13.2.3 Bond wear
13.2.4 Effects of binding material and type of abrasive
13.2.5 Effects of abrasive machining processes
13.3 Analysis of adhesive and abrasive wear
13.4 Abrasive tool loading or clogging
13.5 G-ratio
13.6 Tool wear and loading measurement
References
14. Thermal aspects of abrasive machining processes
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Grinding burn
14.3 Surface damage
14.3.1 Metal debris
14.3.2 Smeared material
14.3.3 Oxidation
14.4 Thermal softening
14.5 Rehardening
14.5.1 Grind-hardening
14.6 Crack formation
14.7 Microhardness
14.8 Residual stresses
14.8.1 Tensile residual stresses
14.8.2 Compressive residual stresses
14.9 Spheroidal swarf
References
15. Workpiece surface roughness
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Surface roughness parameters
15.3 Factors affecting surface roughness
15.3.1 Kinematic factors
15.3.2 Abrasive type, size, and concentration
15.3.3 Cutting parameters
15.3.4 Tool conditioning and microtopography
15.3.5 Workpiece material
15.3.6 Process fluids and coolant nozzles
15.4 Measurement of surface roughness
15.5 Application of acoustic emission to predict surface roughness behavior
References
16. Machinability of materials
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Metals
16.2.1 Structural aspects of metals
16.2.2 Machinability of metals
16.2.2.1 Steels
16.2.2.2 Cast iron
16.2.3 Nickel-based superalloys
16.2.4 Titanium alloys
16.3 Structural aspects and machinability of nonmetals
16.3.1 Advanced ceramics
16.3.2 Optical glass
16.3.3 Cemented carbides
16.3.4 Superabrasives
16.3.5 Composite materials
16.3.6 Polymers
16.4 Conclusions
References
Part Four Process fluids and tribochemistry of abrasive machining
17. Process fluids for abrasive machining
17.1 Introduction
17.1.1 The tasks and role of process fluids
17.1.2 Demands arising from new materials and applications
17.1.3 Environmental aspects and total life cycle
17.2 Types and classes of process fluids
17.2.1 Neat oils
17.2.1.1 Composition of neat oils
17.2.1.2 Natural fatty oils
17.2.1.3 Mineral and partly synthetic hydrocracked oils
17.2.1.4 Synthetic neat oils
17.2.1.5 Classification of neat oils by additives
17.2.2 Water-based fluids
17.2.2.1 Properties of water as a base liquid
17.2.2.2 Water–oil emulsions
17.2.2.3 Water solutions
17.2.3 The influence of additives
17.3 Physical properties of process fluids
17.3.1 Density
17.3.2 Viscosity
17.3.3 Color, transparency, and fluorescence
17.3.4 Detergency
17.3.5 Dispersive ability
17.3.6 Foam depression
17.3.7 Flashpoint
17.3.8 Emulsion stability
17.3.9 Cooling properties
17.3.10 Boiling point
17.4 Chemical properties of process fluids
17.4.1 Thermal stability
17.4.2 Oxidation stability
17.4.3 Catalytic effects of metals
17.4.4 Fluid corrosivity
17.4.5 Rusting
17.4.6 Ash content
17.5 Tribological properties of process fluids
17.5.1 Friction properties
17.5.2 Wear resistance
17.5.3 Extreme pressure properties
17.6 Biological properties of process fluids
17.7 Degradation of fluid properties during operation
17.8 Analysis of physicochemical and biological properties
17.8.1 Water-based emulsion and solution characteristics
17.8.2 Corrosion inhibition
17.8.3 Heat transfer rate
17.8.4 Thermal reactivity of the tribosystem
17.8.5 Biological characteristics
17.9 Tribological and application characteristics
17.10 Selection of process fluids
17.11 Adjustment and maintenance of fluid properties in operation
17.12 Disposal of process fluids
17.13 Conclusions and recommendations
References
18. Fluid delivery
18.1 Introduction
18.2 The tasks and role of process fluid supply
18.3 Cooling and lubrication techniques
18.4 Process fluid delivery and supply system
18.5 Considerations and challenges of process fluid delivery
18.5.1 Useful flow
18.5.2 Hydrodynamic pressure in the cutting gap
18.5.3 Overcoming the air barrier in high-speed grinding
18.5.4 Flow-optimized nozzle concepts and the jet shape
18.5.5 Jet velocity or jet speed
18.5.6 Coolant burnout or film boiling
18.5.7 Bulk temperature of the coolant
18.5.8 The nip
18.5.9 Fluid dynamics simulation
18.6 Fluid nozzles for high-performance grinding processes
18.6.1 Jet nozzles (pipe and slot nozzles)
18.6.2 The shoe nozzle
18.6.3 Needle nozzles
18.6.4 Additive-manufactured/3D-printed nozzles
18.6.5 High-pressure cleaning nozzles
References
19. Tribochemistry of abrasive machining
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Tribochemical behavior of abrasive tools
19.2.1 General aspects
19.2.2 Special factors in abrasive machining
19.2.3 Triboreactions between the tool and workpiece
19.2.4 Triboreactions between the tool and environment
19.3 Tribochemical aspects of the workpiece material structure
19.3.1 Initial structure of a rough-machined workpiece
19.3.2 The Rehbinder effect and tribological implications
19.3.3 Other tribochemical interactions between the workpiece material and environment
19.3.4 Chemical composition of workpiece material
19.4 Tribochemical aspects of dry abrasive machining
19.5 Tribochemical aspects of wet abrasive machining
19.5.1 Lubrication by a tribosorption layer
19.5.2 Lubrication by chemical triboreaction layers
19.5.3 Lubrication in extreme-pressure conditions
19.5.4 Combined effects of tribochemical processes induced by additivation
19.6 Conclusions
References
Symbols and abbreviations
Greek letters
Capital letters
Lowercase letters
Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Z
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