Viral and Antiviral Nanomaterials: Synthesis, Properties, Characterization, and Application (Emerging Materials and Technologies)

✍ Scribed by Devarajan Thangadurai (editor), Saher Islam (editor), Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji (editor)

• Publisher: CRC Press
• Year: 2022
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 457
• Edition: 1
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

Viral and Antiviral Nanomaterials summarizes the synthesis, properties, characterization, and application of viral and antiviral nanomaterials by using interdisciplinary subject matters ranging from materials science to biomedical science. This book highlights attainments in utilizing nanomaterials as powerful tools for the treatment of viral infections in plants, animals, and human beings. It reviews the adopted strategies for designing viral and antiviral nanomaterials for medical applications including cancer therapy and drug delivery. It also explains the different kinds of antiviral nanosized structures, their chemistries, and their attributes that enable them as suitable targets for nanotherapeutics. Each contributor of this book has prepared the book contents in a comprehensive manner for readers to use their research findings to improve the healthcare of living beings.

Features:

• Reviews the novel tools for synthesis and characterization of nanomaterials as viral and antiviral agents
• Explores the different applications of currently available nanomaterials for the treatment of viral infections
• Investigates the role of antiviral nanodrugs in human and plant systems
• Addresses the activity of nanostructures in drug delivery systems for cancer treatment
• Allows readers from various fields of study to access the advanced research and practices across traditional frontiers
• Discusses viral nanomaterials as the viable future of antiviral drugs and nanovaccines in animals and human beings

This authoritative book is of exceptional relevance to postgraduate scholars, researchers, and scientists interested in nanomedicine, biomedical science, materials science, biopharmaceutical technology, microbiology, and virology to improve virus- and cancer-based therapeutic tools for animal and human welfare.

✦ Table of Contents

Cover
Half Title
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Contents
Preface
Editors
Contributors
Section I: Nanosized Materials in Virology
1. Viruses as Nanomaterials
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Plant Viruses as Nanomaterials
1.2.1 Cowpea Mosaic Virus (CPMV)
1.2.2 Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV)
1.2.3 Brome Mosaic Virus (BMV)
1.2.3.1 BMV in Encapsulation Strategies for Imaging/Therapeutics
1.2.4 Hibiscus Chlorotic Ringspot Virus (HCRSV)
1.3 Bacterial Viruses (Bacteriophages) as Nanomaterials
1.3.1 M13 Bacteriophage
1.3.2 T4 Bacteriophage
1.3.2.1 Synthesis of Fe Based Nanocomposite by T4 Bacteriophage Virus
1.4 Animal Viruses as Nanomaterials
1.4.1 Encapsulation of Gold Nanoparticles by Simian Virus 40 Capsids
1.4.2 Encapsulation of Fe3O4 Nanoparticles into Genetically Modified Hepatitis B Core Virus-Like Particles
1.5 Characterization of Nanomaterials
1.5.1 Phase Characterization of Nanomaterials
1.5.1.1 X-Ray Diffraction of Synthesized Nanomaterials
1.5.2 Morphological Characterization of Nanomaterials
1.5.2.1 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)
1.5.2.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
1.5.2.3 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)
1.5.3 Spectroscopical Characterization of Nanomaterials
1.5.3.1 UV-Visible Spectroscopy
1.5.3.2 Fourier Transformed Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy
1.5.3.3 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS)
1.5.3.4 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy
1.6 Applications of Viruses as Nanomaterials
1.6.1 Biomedical Applications
1.6.2 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
1.6.3 Drug Delivery by Virus Based Nanoparticles
1.6.4 Virus as Catalysts
1.6.5 Light-Harvesting System Based on the TMV
1.6.6 Vaccines for Cancer
1.6.7 Vaccines for Neurological Diseases and Addiction
1.7 Conclusion
References
2. Synthesis and Characterization of Nanoparticles as Potential Viral and Antiviral Agents
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Nanoparticles Used as Viral and Antiviral Agents
2.3 Antiviral Nanoparticles
2.3.1 Metal Nanoparticles
2.3.1.1 Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles
2.3.1.2 Characterization of Metal Nanoparticles
2.3.1.3 Mechanism Underlying the Antiviral Action of Metal Nanoparticles
2.3.2 Organic Nanoparticles
2.3.3 Antiviral Potential of Nanoparticles against Various Viruses
2.4 Viral Nanoparticles
2.4.1 Synthesis of VNPs
2.4.2 Modification of VNPs and VLPs
2.4.2.1 Bioconjugation
2.4.2.2 Encapsulation
2.4.2.3 Biomineralization
2.4.2.4 Genetic Engineering
2.4.3 Applications of VNPs and VLPs
2.4.3.1 Vaccines
2.4.3.2 Imaging
2.4.3.3 Targeted Delivery
2.5 Conclusion
References
3. Biogenic Synthesis of Nanoparticulate Materials for Antiviral Applications
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Synthesis of Nanoparticles
3.2.1 Physical Method
3.2.1.1 Ball Milling Technique
3.2.1.2 Laser Ablation Technique
3.2.1.3 Physical Vapour Deposition Technique
3.2.1.4 Electrical Arc-Discharge Technique
3.2.2 Chemical Method
3.2.2.1 Electrochemical Technique
3.2.2.2 Photochemical Technique
3.2.2.3 Microwave-Assisted Technique
3.2.2.4 Sonochemical Technique
3.2.3 Biological Method
3.2.3.1 Bacteria Mediated Technique
3.2.3.2 Algae Mediated Technique
3.2.3.3 Fungi-Mediated Technique
3.2.3.4 Plant-Mediated Technique
3.2.4 Other Synthesis Methods
3.2.4.1 Microemulsions
3.2.4.2 Nanoliposomes
3.2.4.3 Nanoemulsions
3.3 Characterization
3.3.1 Transmission Electron Microscopy
3.3.2 Confocal Imaging
3.3.3 Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction
3.3.4 Plaque Assay
3.3.5 β-Galactosidase
3.3.6 Flow Cytometry
3.3.7 Western Blot
3.3.8 Computer Simulation
3.4 Conclusion and Prospects
References
4. Nanoparticle Synthesis and Administration Routes for Antiviral Uses
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Overview about Nanoparticles
4.3 Synthesis of Different Nanoparticles
4.4 Administration Routes of Nanoparticles for Antiviral use
4.5 Characterization of the Nanoparticles
4.5.1 Microscopy Techniques
4.5.2 Dynamic Light Scattering
4.5.3 Zeta Potential
4.5.4 Thermal Analysis
4.5.5 Spectroscopy Techniques
4.6 Conclusion
References
5. Role of Nanostructures in Inhibition and Treatment of Viral Infections
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Viral Infection and Mechanism of Pathogenesis
5.1.2 Virus and Immune System
5.1.3 Overview of Nanochemistry
5.1.4 Nanosystem and Antiviral Mechanism
5.2 Characteristics of Nanocarriers and their Application in Viral Therapeutics
5.2.1 Liposomes
5.2.2 Niosomes and Ethosome
5.2.3 Polymeric Nanoparticles
5.2.3.1 Nanocapsules
5.2.3.2 Nanospheres
5.2.4 Micelles
5.2.5 Dendrimers
5.2.6 Solid Lipid NPs
5.2.7 Cyclodextrin Derivatives
5.2.8 Nano Emulsions and Suspensions
5.3 Nanotherapeutics against Specific Viral Infections
5.3.1 HIV
5.3.2 HSV
5.3.3 Influenza Virus
5.3.4 HBV Infection
5.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
Section II: Viral Nanomaterials: Biomedical Applications
6. Photocatalytic Inactivation of Pathogenic Viruses Using Metal Oxide and Carbon-Based Nanoparticles
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Metal Oxide Nanoparticles
6.2.1 Modification to Metal Oxide Nanoparticles
6.2.2 Mechanism
6.3 Carbon-Based Nanoparticles
6.3.1 Fullerenes
6.3.2 Carbon Dots
6.3.3 Carbon Nanotubes
6.3.4 Graphene Oxides
6.4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
Acknowledgements
References
7. Non-Photocatalytic and Photocatalytic Inactivation of Viruses Using Antiviral Assays and Antiviral Nanomaterials
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Classification and Infection Mechanism of Viruses
7.3 Antiviral Assay Methods for Nanoparticles
7.3.1 Confocal Imaging Assay
7.3.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy
7.3.3 Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction
7.3.4 Flow Cytometry Assay
7.3.5 Plaque Assay
7.3.6 Tissue Culture Infectious Dose Assay
7.3.7 β-Galactosidase Assay
7.3.8 Western Blot Assay
7.3.9 In Vivo Analysis
7.3.10 Computer Simulation
7.4 Non-Photocatalytic Inactivation of Viruses
7.4.1 Silver Nanoparticles
7.4.1.1 Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles
7.4.1.2 Silver Nanoparticles as Antiviral Agents
7.4.1.3 Antiviral Mechanism of Silver Nanoparticles
7.4.1.4 Toxicity of Silver Nanoparticles
7.4.1.4.1 Cellular Toxicity
7.4.1.4.2 Environmental Risk
7.4.2 Gold Nanoparticles
7.5 Photocatalytic Inactivation of Viruses
7.5.1 Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles
7.5.2 Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles
7.5.3 Graphene-Based Nanomaterials
7.5.4 Quantum Dots
7.5.5 Graphitic Carbon Nitride
7.5.5.1 Viral Inactivation Mechanism of g-C3N4
7.5.6 Other Nanoparticles as Antiviral Agents
7.6 Concerning Problems with Nanoparticles as Antiviral Agents
7.7 Conclusions and Perspectives
References
8. Application of Viral Nanomaterials in Medicine
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Viral Nanomaterials
8.2.1 Types of Nanomaterials
8.2.2 Engineering of VNPs
8.3 Application of Nanotechnology in Medicine
8.3.1 Nanomedicine
8.3.2 VLPs Role in Immune Responses
8.3.3 Nanoparticles' Role against Cancers
8.3.4 Nanotechnology Role in the COVID-19 Pandemic
8.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
9. Virus-Based Nanocarriers for Targeted Drug Delivery
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Types of Nanocarriers
9.1.1 Polymeric Nanoparticles
9.1.2 Polymeric Micelles
9.1.3 Dendrimers
9.1.4 Liposomes
9.1.5 Viral-Based Nanocarriers
9.3 Virus-Based Drug-Delivery Systems
9.3.1 Drug Delivery
9.3.2 The Package Processes of Drugs into Virus-Based Nanocarriers
9.3.2.1 Using Supramolecular Chemistry for Packaging of Drugs
9.3.2.2 Using Chemical Attachment for Loading Drugs
9.4 Applications of Virus-Based Nanocarriers in Medicine
9.4.1 Medical-Imaging Applications
9.4.2 Tumour-Targeting Applications
9.4.3 Vaccination Applications
9.5 Conclusion
References
Section III: Antiviral Nanotherapeutics
10. Antiviral Nanomaterials in Therapeutic Interventions
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Overview of Viruses
10.3 Nanomaterials for Antiviral Therapeutics
10.3.1 Nanomaterials as Delivery Agents in Antiviral Therapeutics
10.3.2 Nanomaterials as Therapeutic Agents against Viruses
10.4 Conclusion
References
11. In Vivo Study of Anti-Influenza Effect of Silver Nanoparticles in a Mouse Model
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Biological Activity of Silver Nanoparticles
11.3 The Intervention of Silver Nanoparticles in Mammalian Copper Metabolism
11.4 Influence of the Modulated Copper Status on Virus Infection: Proof of Concept
11.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
12. Antiviral Drugs as Tools for Nanomedicine
12.1 Introduction
12.1.1 Cancer Epidemiology: Global and Indian Scenario
12.1.2 Understanding the Cancer
12.1.3 Causes of Cancer
12.1.4 Types of Cancer
12.1.5 Conventional and Emerging Cancer Therapies
12.2 Viruses, Cancer and Treatment
12.2.1 Mechanism of Viral Cancer
12.2.2 Human Cancer-Causing Viruses
12.2.3 Current Viral Vaccines and Drugs
12.3 Nanotechnology in Cancer Treatment
12.4 Current Overview of Antiviral Therapy in Cancer
12.5 Conclusion
References
13. Emerging Nanotechnology-Enabled Approaches to Mitigate COVID-19 Pandemic
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Diagnosis of SARS CoV-2: Currently Used Methods and Limitations
13.3 Use of Nontechnology for Detection and Diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2
13.3.1 Nanotechnology-Based Point of Care (PoC) Testing for COVID-19 Detection
13.3.2 Nanotechnology Based Biosensors for Detection of COVID-19
13.3.3 Microfluidic Devices
13.3.4 Colorimetric Assays
13.3.5 Magnetic Nanoparticle-Based Separation
13.3.6 Detection Based on Biomolecules
13.3.6.1 Nucleic Acid and Antibody Based Biosensors
13.3.6.2 Aptamer-Based Biosensors
13.4 Nanomaterial-Based Vaccine Development and Immunomodulation
13.4.1 Virus-Like Particles (VLP)
13.4.2 Other Nano-Based Vaccines
13.4.3 Nano-Based Vaccine Delivery
13.5 Nano-Based Therapeutics and Drugs Delivery for COVID-19
13.5.1 Nano-Based Drug Delivery
13.5.2 Nanoparticles for Blocking Cell Attachment and Viral Entry
13.5.3 Nanoparticles as a Blocking Agent for Viral Replication and Proliferation
13.6 Nanoparticles Based Disinfectants with Viricidal Effects
13.6.1 Nanomaterials for Surface Decontamination
13.7 Future Perspectives
References
14. Applications of Antiviral Nanoparticles in Cancer Therapy
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Antiviral Nanoparticles
14.2.1 Types of Antiviral NPs
14.2.1.1 Inorganic/Metal NPs
14.2.1.2 Organic NPs
14.3 Cancer Vaccines
14.4 Applications of Antiviral Nanoparticles in Cancer
14.4.1 Chemotherapy
14.4.2 Radiation Therapy
14.4.3 Gene Therapy
14.4.4 Targeted Therapy
14.4.5 Immunotherapy
14.5 AVNPs in Cancer Diagnosis
14.5.1 Preparation of Dendrimers
14.5.2 Properties of Dendrimers
14.5.3 Dendrimers in MRI
14.6 AVNPs in Vaccines and Theranostics
14.7 AVNP Mediated Cancer Therapy
14.7.1 Hepatocellular Carcinoma and AVNP-Mediated Treatment
14.7.2 Current Therapy Approaches to Treat HCC
14.7.3 AVNPs-Mediated Therapy in HCCs
14.7.3.1 Doxorubicin
14.7.3.2 Sorafenib
14.7.3.3 RNA-Based
14.7.3.4 Polymeric NPs
14.8 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
15. Nano Delivery of Antiviral Plant Bioactives as Cancer Therapeutics
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Antiviral Plant Bioactives with Anticancer Activity
15.2.1 Polyphenols
15.2.2 Flavanoids
15.2.3 Carotenoids
15.2.4 Terpenes
15.2.5 Alkaloids
15.2.6 Glycosides
15.2.7 Thiosulfinates
15.2.8 Glucoside
15.2.9 Other Plant Molecules
15.3 Nano Drug-Delivery Systems for Cancer Therapeutics
15.3.1 Targeted Nano Drug-Delivery System
15.3.1.1 Passive Drug Targeting (PDT)
15.3.1.2 Active Drug Targeting (ADT)
15.3.2 Stimuli-Responsive NDDS (SR-NDDS)
15.3.2.1 Endogenous Stimuli-Responsive NDDS
15.3.2.2 Exogenous Stimuli-Responsive NDDS
15.3.2.3 Multi Stimuli-Responsive (MSR) Nano Drug-Delivery System
15.3.3 Controlled-Release NDDS
15.3.3.1 Polymers Used in Controlled-Release NDDS
15.3.3.2 Lipids Used in Controlled-Release NDDS
15.4 Conclusion
References
16. Conjugated Graphene Gold Nanocomposites for Cancer Therapy
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Synthesis of AuNPs
16.2.1 Hard-Template Approach
16.2.2 Electrochemical Approach
16.2.3 Photochemical Synthesis
16.2.4 Seedless-Growth Approach
16.2.5 Seed-Mediated Approach
16.2.5.1 Presence of AgNO3 in Seed-Mediated Approach
16.2.5.2 Absence of AgNO3 in Seed-Mediated Approach
16.3 Synthesis Protocols for Gr-AuNPs based Nanocomposites
16.3.1 Synthesis of Gr/ GO/rGO Supported Au Nanocomposites
16.3.1.1 In Situ Synthesis of Gr/ GO/rGO Supported Au Nanocomposites
16.3.1.2 Ex Situ Synthesis of Gr/GO/rGO Supported Au Nanocomposites
16.3.2 Synthesis of Gr/ GO/rGO Coated/Wrapped Au Nanocomposites
16.4 Advantages of Gr/AuNPs based Composites for Cancer Treatment
16.4.1 Biocompatibility
16.4.2 Photo-Thermal Activities
16.5 Toxicity Aspects of Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs) and Graphene (Gr) and its Derivatives (GO, rGO)
16.5.1 Cytotoxicity of AuNPs
16.5.1.1 Correlation between Particle Sizes of AuNPs and Cytotoxicity
16.5.1.2 AuNPs Surface Charges
16.5.1.3 AuNPs Surface Modification and Cytotoxicity
16.5.2 Toxicity Aspects of Graphene (Gr) and its Derivatives (GO, rGO)
16.6 Application of Gr-AuNPs in Cancer Treatment
16.6.1 Detection of Cancer
16.6.1.1 Immuno-Sensors
16.6.1.2 Geno Sensors
16.6.1.3 Enzyme Based Sensors
16.6.2 Photothermal Therapy (PTT)
16.6.3 Photo-Dynamic Therapy (PDT)
16.6.4 Drug Delivery
16.6.5 Combined Therapy
16.6.6 Theranostic Application
16.7 Environmental/Eco-Toxicological Hazards of Gr/GO/rGO Based Nanocomposites
16.8 Challenges and Future Perspective of Gr-AuNPs based Composites for Cancer Treatment
16.9 Conclusion
References
17. Surface Engineered Graphene Oxide and Its Derivatives: A Prospective Nano‐Structured Carbon as Anticancer Agent
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Surface Engineered Graphene Oxide (GO) and its Derivatives Incorporated Nanomedicines for Cancer Prevention
17.3 GO as Versatile Tool for Anticancer Medicine
17.3.1 Functionalized GO and Its Derivatives for Targeted Drug Delivery
17.3.2 Functionalized GO and Its Derivatives for Nontargeted Drug Delivery
17.4 GO as Multipurpose Tool for Gene Delivery
17.4.1 Functionalized GO and Its Derivatives for Targeted Gene Delivery
17.4.2 Functionalized GO and Its Derivatives for Nontargeted Gene Delivery
17.5 Combating Cytotoxicity of GO and its Derivatives: Platform to Ensure Biocompatibility
17.6 Facts Behind the Toxicity Profile of GO and Its Derivatives
17.6.1 Dimensional Aspect
17.6.2 Concentration
17.6.3 Charge
17.6.4 Surface Structure
17.6.5 Functionalization
17.6.6 Impurities
17.6.7 Protein/Corona
17.7 Research Gaps and Future Studies
17.8 Conclusion
References
18. Antiviral Nanomaterials as Potential Targets for Malaria Prevention and Treatment
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Current Methods of Preparation of Nanoparticles
18.2.1 Preparation of Polymeric Nanoparticles
18.2.1.1 Nanoprecipitation
18.2.1.2 Milling Technique
18.2.1.3 Extrusion Method
18.2.1.4 Supercritical Fluid Technology
18.2.1.5 Salting-Out Method
18.2.1.6 Ionic Gelation Technique
18.2.1.7 Sonication Method
18.2.2 Preparation of Lipid Nanoparticles
18.2.2.1 High-Pressure Homogenization (HPH)
18.2.2.2 Solvent-Emulsification Evaporation (SEE)
18.2.2.3 Emulsification and Solvent Displacement Method
18.3 Administration of Antiviral Drugs
18.3.1 Oral Route
18.3.2 Nasal Route
18.3.3 Brain Route
18.3.4 Nose-Brain Route
18.3.5 Ocular Route
18.3.6 Topical and Transdermal Route
18.3.7 Parenteral Route
18.3.8 Vaginal Route
18.4 Uptake and Processing of Antiviral Nanoparticles
18.5 Therapeutic Approach for Malaria Treatment
18.6 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
Index