Preface
Contents
1 Introduction
1.1 The Autonomous Forklift Truck as an Example System
1.2 Structure of the Book
References
Electrical and Electronic Basics
2 Electrotechnical Basics
2.1 Electrotechnical Consideration of Embedded Systems
2.2 Electrical Charge
2.3 Electric Current
2.4 Electrical Resistance
2.5 The Electrical Circuit
2.6 Ohm's Law
2.7 Energy and Power
2.8 Time-Variable Voltages
References
3 Electrical Networks
3.1 Transfer Function of Electrical Networks
3.2 Resistance Networks
3.2.1 Series Connection of Resistors
3.2.2 Parallel Connection of Resistors
3.2.3 Kirchhoff's First Law (Nodal Rule)
3.2.4 Kirchhoff's Second Law (Mesh Rule)
3.3 Two-Terminal and Two-Port Components
3.4 Resistor-Capacitor Networks
3.4.1 The Capacitor as a Two-Terminal Component
3.4.2 Parallel Connection of Capacitors
3.4.3 Series Connection of Capacitors
3.4.4 Impedance
3.5 Switching Behavior of RC Elements
3.5.1 The Electrical Low Pass
3.5.2 Switching Behavior of a High-Pass Filter
3.6 Resistor-Capacitor-Inductor Networks
3.6.1 Inductor
3.6.2 RLC Circuit
4 Basic Electronic Circuits
4.1 Foundations of Semiconductor Technology
4.2 Doping of Semiconductors
4.3 The pn-Transition
4.4 Diodes
4.4.1 Wiring Examples
4.4.2 Diodes as Switches
4.4.3 Special Diodes
4.5 Bipolar Transistor
4.5.1 Emitter Circuit
4.5.2 Operating Point
4.5.3 AC Voltage
4.6 Field Effect Transistors
4.6.1 Enhancement Mode MOSFETs
4.6.2 Depletion Mode MOSFETs
4.7 Basic Transistor Circuits
4.7.1 Transistor as an Inverter
4.7.2 Differential Amplifier
4.7.3 Operational Amplifier
4.8 Application of Operational Amplifiers
4.8.1 Comparator
4.8.2 Feedback Loop
4.8.3 Comparator with Hysteresis (Schmitt Trigger)
4.9 Amplifier Circuits
4.9.1 Inverting Amplifier
4.9.2 Non-inverting Amplifier
4.10 Analog Computation Components
4.10.1 Analog Adder
4.10.2 Analog Subtractor
4.10.3 Integrator
References
Systems Theory and Control
5 Systems Theory
5.1 Modeling the Embedded System
5.2 Signals
5.2.1 Stochastic and Deterministic Signals
5.2.2 Continuous and Discrete Signals
5.2.3 Energy and Power Signals
5.2.4 Description of Signals in the Time Domain
5.2.5 Transmission Systems
5.2.6 Linear, Time-Invariant Systems
5.3 Convolution
5.3.1 Graphical Representation of the Convolution
5.3.2 Discrete-Time Convolution
5.4 Modeling Dynamic Systems
5.4.1 Fourier Series and Transformation
5.4.2 Discrete Fourier Transformation (DFT)
5.4.3 Laplace Transformation
References
6 Control Theory
6.1 Introduction to Control Engineering
6.1.1 Open-Loop Control
6.1.2 Closed Loop Control
6.1.3 Simple Controllers
6.2 Classical Closed Loop Control
6.2.1 Target Specification
6.2.2 System Modeling and Identification
6.2.3 Identification
6.2.4 Elementary System Elements
6.2.5 PID Element
6.2.6 Controller Selection
6.2.7 Parameter Determination
6.2.8 Heuristic Method According to ZieglerโNichols
6.3 Fuzzy Control
6.3.1 Basics of Fuzzy Set Theory
6.3.2 Structure of a Fuzzy Controller
References
System Components of Embedded Systems
7 Signal Processing
7.1 The Measurement and Control Cycle
7.2 Signal Processing
7.3 Sampling
7.3.1 Sampling Theorem
7.3.2 (Anti-)Aliasing Filter
7.4 Sample and Hold Circuit
7.5 A/D Converters
7.5.1 Successive Approximation Converter
7.5.2 Parallel Converters
7.5.3 Priority Decoder
7.5.4 Dual Slope Method
7.5.5 Multi-slope Converter
7.5.6 Charge Balancing Method
7.5.7 Delta Modulation
7.5.8 Delta Sigma Converter
7.6 Reversal Process
7.7 D/A Conversion
7.7.1 Parallel Converters
7.7.2 R-2R Resistor Ladder Network
7.7.3 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
7.7.4 Delta Sigma Converter
7.8 Sample and Hold
7.9 Filters in the Reversal Process
References
8 Sensor Data Processing
8.1 Definitions of Sensor Technology
8.2 Measurement Error
8.2.1 Error Propagation
8.3 Transfer Function of Sensors
8.3.1 Properties of Sensor Transfer Functions
8.4 Digital Processing
8.4.1 FIR Filter
8.4.2 IIR Filter
8.4.3 Examples of Digital Filters
8.5 Internal (Intrinsic) Sensors
8.5.1 Optical Encoders
8.5.2 Acceleration Sensors
8.6 External (Extrinsic) Sensors
8.6.1 Strain Gauges
8.6.2 Force-Torque Sensors
References
9 Actuators
9.1 Actuator Components
9.2 Power Electronics
9.3 Electric Drives
9.3.1 DC Motors
9.3.2 Stepper Motors
9.4 Gearboxes
9.5 Other Actuators
9.5.1 Rheological Fluids
9.5.2 Piezoelectric Actuators
9.5.3 Thermal Actuators
References
10 Processing Units for Embedded Systems
10.1 The Role of the Processing Unit
10.2 Requirements
10.3 Processing UnitsโOverview of Types
10.3.1 Generic, Software-Programmable Processing Units
10.3.2 Application-Optimized, Software-Programmable Processing Units
10.3.3 Application-Specific, Hardware-Programmable Processing Units
10.3.4 Generic, Hardware-Programmable Processing Units
10.4 Microcontrollers
10.5 Field-Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs)
References
11 Communication
11.1 Communication Components of Embedded Systems
11.2 Requirements for Communication Systems
11.3 OSI Model
11.4 Physical Layer
11.4.1 Bandwidth and Maximum Transmission Frequency
11.4.2 Interference Suppression
11.4.3 Clock Recovery
11.5 Link Layer
11.5.1 Error Protection
11.5.2 Media Access Control
11.6 Examples of Commercial Bus Systems
11.6.1 Sensor-Actuator Buses
11.6.2 Fieldbuses
References
Modeling and Real-Time
12 Software Modeling and Analysis
12.1 Abstraction of Technical Systems
12.2 UML
12.2.1 Activity Diagram
12.2.2 Timing Diagram
12.2.3 Interaction (Overview) Diagrams
12.2.4 Class Diagram
12.2.5 State Diagram
12.2.6 Component Diagram
12.3 SDL
12.4 Petri Nets
12.4.1 Analysis of Petri Nets
12.4.2 Timed Petri Nets
References
13 Real-Time Systems
13.1 Real Time in Embedded Systems
13.2 Allocation
13.2.1 Allocation as a Graph Problem
13.3 Processes and Plans
13.3.1 Sporadic Processes
13.3.2 Periodic Processes
13.3.3 Problem Classes
13.4 Scheduling Approaches
13.4.1 Plan by Searching
13.4.2 Earliest Deadline First
13.4.3 Least Laxity
13.4.4 Rate-Monotonic Scheduling
References
Appendix A Physical Units and Quantities
Appendix B Resistance Values, Circuit Symbols and Diode Types
B.1 Specific Resistance
B.2 Color Coding of Resistors
B.3 Circuit Symbols
B.4 Diode Types
Appendix C Fourier and Laplace Tables
C.1 Examples of Fourier Series
C.2 Fourier Transformation Table
C.3 Laplace Transformation Table
Reference
Index