Cover
Half Title
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Editor Biographies
Contributors
Section 1: Introduction to Biomaterials Surface Engineering
1. Introduction to Biomaterial Surface Engineering
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Essential Requirements Established by Biomaterials
1.3 Scientific Values for the Consideration of Biomaterial
1.4 Global Demand on Biomaterials
1.5 Surface Properties for the Biomaterials
1.6 Biocompatibility of a Materials
1.7 Surface Engineering for a Biomaterials
1.8 Important Areas for the Future Research on Biomaterials?
1.9 Summary
References
2. Criteria for Biomaterial Surface Selection
2.1 History of Biomaterials
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Classifications of Biomaterials
2.3.1 Polymers
2.3.2 Metals
2.3.3 Ceramics
2.3.4 Composites
2.4 Criteria for Biomaterial Surface Selection
2.4.1 Composition of ECM
2.4.2 Host Tissue Response
2.4.3 Protein Absorption and Surface Interactions
2.4.4 Cellular Interaction of Biomaterials
2.4.5 Osseointegration
2.4.6 Osteoconduction
2.4.7 Osteoinduction
2.4.8 Biocompatibility
2.4.9 Bioactivity
2.4.10 Biodegradable
2.4.11 Bioinert
2.4.12 Biofunctionality
2.4.13 Cytotoxicity
2.4.14 Surface Properties
2.4.14.1 Surface Chemistry
2.4.14.2 Surface Topography
2.4.14.2.1 Surface Roughness
2.4.14.2.2 Surface Pattern
2.4.14.3 Surface Charge
2.4.14.4 Surface Energy
2.4.14.5 Surface Wettability (Hydrophilicity/Hydrophobicity)
2.4.15 High Corrosion Resistance
2.4.16 High Wear Resistance
2.4.17 Fatigue Resistance
2.4.18 Strength
2.4.19 Porosity
2.5 Conclusion
References
3. Biomaterial Surfaces and Their Properties
3.1 An Overview
3.2 Criteria for Selection of a Suitable Biomaterial
3.2.1 Biocompatibility
3.2.2 Hemocompatibility
3.2.3 Mechanical Properties
3.2.4 Corrosion Resistance
3.2.5 Osseointegration
3.3 Different Classes of Biomaterials
3.3.1 Metals-Based Biomaterials
3.3.2 Stainless Steel
3.3.3 Cobalt-Chrome
3.3.4 Titanium-Based Alloys
3.3.5 Ceramics
3.3.5.1 Alumina (Al2O3)
3.3.5.2 Zirconia (ZrO2)
3.3.5.3 Calcium Phosphate Ceramics
3.3.5.4 Bioglass Ceramics
3.3.6 Polymers
3.3.7 Composites
3.4 Possible Approaches for Surface Modification for Biomedical Applications
3.5 Conclusion
References
4. Smart Biomaterials and Their Applications
4.1 Introduction
4.2 What Is Smart Biomaterials
4.3 Historical Overview of Smart or Intelligent Materials
4.4 Positive and Negative Aspects of SBM
4.5 Requirement of Smart Biomaterial
4.6 Different Levels of Smart Biomaterials
4.7 Designing of Smart Biomaterials
4.8 Smart Biomaterial Classification Following Specific Stimuli
4.8.1 Piezoelectric Materials
4.8.2 Thermoresponsive Materials
4.8.3 Magnetic Responsive Biomaterials
4.8.4 pH-Sensitive Biomaterial
4.8.5 Enzyme-Responsive Biomaterial
4.9 Current Discoveries in Smart Biomaterials
4.9.1 Smart Hydrogels
4.9.2 Application of Smart Hydrogels
4.9.3 Smart Nanomaterials
4.9.4 Smart Bioconjugations
4.9.5 Shape-Memory Biomaterials
4.9.6 Carbon Nanotube as Smart Biomaterials
4.9.7 Diamond-Like Carbon as a Smart Biomaterial
4.10 Application of Smart Biomaterial in Various Fields
4.10.1 Smart Biomaterial for Tissue Engineering
4.10.2 Smart Biomaterials for Drug Delivery and Medical Devices
4.10.3 Smart Biomaterials in Immune Engineering
4.10.4 Smart Biomaterials for Environmental Applications
4.11 Summary
References
5. Smart Materials for Bioimplant
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Smart Materials
5.3 Surface Modification and Coating
5.4 Active Biomaterials
5.5 Smart Biomaterial Types
5.5.1 Natural-Derived Biomaterials
5.5.2 Metallic-Based Biomaterials
5.5.3 Carbon-Based Biomaterials
5.6 Smart Metal Oxide/Chalcogenides-Based Biomaterials
5.7 Smart Organic-Based Biomaterials
5.8 Challenges of Smart Biomaterials
5.9 Conclusions
References
6. Classification of Biomaterials and Surface Strategies
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Classification of Biomaterials
6.2.1 Metals
6.2.2 Ceramics
6.2.3 Polymers
6.2.4 Biodegradable Polymers
6.2.5 Non-Biodegradable Polymers
6.3 Surface Modifications of Biomaterials
6.3.1 Metals
6.3.2 Ceramics
6.3.3 Biodegradable and Non-Biodegradable Polymers
6.4 Performance and Toxicological Assessment of Surface Strategies
6.5 Applications of Surface Strategies
6.6 Summary and Future Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
7. Corrosion, Degradation, and Material Release by Biomaterials
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Biocompatibility
7.3 Nature of Environment in Human Body
7.4 Corrosion of Metallic Implant Materials
7.5 Types of Corrosion in Biomaterials
7.5.1 Galvanic Corrosion
7.5.2 Pitting Corrosion
7.5.3 Crevice Corrosion
7.5.4 Corrosion Fatigue
7.5.5 Fretting Corrosion
7.6 Corrosion of Various Biomaterials
7.6.1 Metals
7.6.2 Polymers
7.6.3 Ceramics
7.6.4 Composites
7.6.5 Alloys
7.6.5.1 Stainless Steels
7.6.5.2 Cobalt-Chromium Alloys
7.6.5.3 Titanium and Titanium Alloys
7.7 Methods of Corrosion Prevention
7.7.1 Surface Treatment
7.7.1.1 Ion Implantation
7.7.1.2 Passivation
7.7.1.3 Electro Polishing and Thermal Methods
7.7.1.4 Bioceramic Coatings on Implants
7.8 Quality Control
7.9 Research and Development
7.10 Scope for Future Development and Conclusion
References
Section 2: Surface Synthesis and Engineering of Biomaterials
8. Various Processing Routes for Biocompatible Materials: From Conventional Process to Additive Manufacturing
8.1 Introduction
8.1.1 Exploration of Processing Methods for Biocompatible Materials
8.1.1.1 Primary Processing Methods:
8.1.1.2 Secondary Processing Methods:
8.2 Historical Overviews
8.3 Casting
8.4 Sol-Gel
8.5 Electrospinning
8.6 Self-Assembly
8.6.1 Types of Self-Assembly Techniques
8.7 CAD/CAM Techniques
8.7.1 Additive Manufacturing/3D Printing
8.7.1.1 Different Types of Additive Manufacturing Techniques
8.7.1.2 Biocompatible Applications of the Additive Manufacturing Method
8.8 Conclusion and Aspects of Research
References
9. Biofilm for Implant Materials
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Implants
9.3 Biomedical Films or Coatings
9.4 Case Study
9.4.1 Research Method
9.4.2 Results and Discussion
9.5 Conclusions
References
10. Additive Manufactured Biomaterials Surfaces
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Optimization of Additive Manufacturing Techniques to Fabricate Biomaterial Surfaces with Enhanced Biocompatibility
10.3 The Most Suitable Biomaterials for Additive Manufacturing of Biomaterial Surfaces
10.4 Polymers
10.5 Ceramics
10.6 Metals
10.7 Silk
10.8 Surface Modification Techniques Can Be Employed to Improve the Integration of Additive Manufactured Biomaterial Surfaces
10.9 Potential Challenges and Future Outlook Associated with Additive Manufactured Biomaterial Surfaces
10.10 Conclusion
References
11. Various Additive Manufacturing Techniques for the Fabrication of Biomaterials
11.1 Introduction to Additive Manufacturing
11.2 Different Additive Manufacturing Techniques
11.2.1 Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
11.2.2 Stereolithography (SLA)
11.2.3 Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)/Selective Laser Melting (SLM)
11.2.4 Bioprinting
11.2.5 Digital Light Processing (DLP)
11.2.6 PolyJet Technology
11.2.7 Electron Beam Melting (EBM)
11.3 Additive Manufacturing of Important Biomaterials
11.3.1 Hydroxyapatite
11.3.2 Ti-6Al-4V or Ti64
11.3.3 Polyether Ether Ketone (PEEK)
11.3.4 Poly-Lactic Acid (PLA)
11.4 Conclusion
References
12. Surface Modification: Carbide-, Silicide-, Nitride-Based Surface
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Surface Modification of Biomaterials
12.3 Objectives of Surface Modification
12.4 Techniques of Surface Modification
12.4.1 Mechanical Surface Modification Method
12.4.2 Physicochemical Surface Modification
12.4.3 Physical Surface Modification
12.5 Brief Discussion on Carbide, Silicide, Nitride
12.6 Surface Treatment: Carbide-Based Surface
12.6.1 Titanium Carbide (TiC)
12.6.2 Silicon Carbide (SiC)
12.6.3 Niobium Carbide (NbC)
12.7 Surface Treatment: Silicide-Based Surface
12.7.1 Titanium Silicide
12.7.2 Calcium Silicide
12.8 Surface Treatment: Nitride-Based Surface
12.8.1 Carbon Nitride (CN)
12.8.2 Silicon Nitride
12.8.3 Titanium Nitride
12.8.4 Overview of Some Experiments Performed by Researchers on Nitride Coatings
12.9 Some Commonly Used Coating Techniques to Modify the Required Biomaterial Surface
12.9.1 Physical Vapor Deposition
12.9.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition
12.9.3 Thermal Spraying
12.9.4 Ion Implantation
12.9.5 Diffusion
12.9.6 Plating
12.9.6.1 Electrochemical Deposition
12.9.6.2 Electrodeposition
12.9.6.3 Electroless Deposition
12.10 Conclusion
References
13. Nanoengineering in Biomaterials
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Nanoengineering Techniques for Synthesis and Characterization of Biomaterials
13.3 Application of Nanoengineered Biomaterials
13.4 Summary
References
14. Smart Biomaterial Surface
14.1 Introduction
14.1.1 Biomaterial Surface Science
14.1.1.1 Biocompatibility Biomaterials and Molecular Biorecognition Surfaces
14.1.1.2 Characterization of Complex Biological Surfaces
14.2 Smart Biomaterials
14.2.1 Multiple Grades of Smart Biomaterials
14.2.2 Immune Modulatory Materials
14.3 Current Trends
14.4 Surface Analysis
14.5 Classification Based on Surface Modification
14.5.1 Chemical Surface Modification
14.5.2 Biochemical Surface Modification
14.5.3 Physiochemical Surface Modification
14.6 Various Approaches of Modification
14.7 Applications of Smart Biomaterials
14.7.1 Responding to Internal Stimuli
14.7.1.1 Oxidative Species Responsive Strategy
14.7.1.2 Acidic Environment Responsive Strategy
14.7.1.3 Endogenous Electric Field Responsive Strategy
14.7.1.4 Specific Ionic Concentration Responsive Strategy
14.7.1.5 Specific Enzyme Responsive Strategy
14.7.1.6 Specific Immune Environment Responsive Strategy
14.7.2 Responding to External Stimuli
14.7.2.1 Piezoelectric Responsiveness
14.7.2.2 pH Responsiveness
14.7.2.3 Photo Responsiveness
14.7.2.4 Magnetic Responsiveness
14.7.2.5 Thermo Responsiveness
14.7.2.6 Electro Responsiveness
14.8 Conclusion
14.9 Future Scope
References
15. Energy Biomaterial Surface
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Surface Roughness
15.3 Surface Charge
15.4 Surface Polarity
15.5 Biomaterial Surface Wettability
15.6 Plasticity of Biocompartibility
15.7 Surface Modification
15.8 Summary
References
Section 3: Post-Modification of Biomaterial Surface
16. Surface Treatment of Polymeric, Ceramic, Metallic, and Composite Biomaterials for Bioimplants and Medical Device Applications
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Biomaterials
16.2.1 Polymeric Biomaterials
16.2.2 Metallic Biomaterials
16.2.3 Ceramic Biomaterials
16.2.4 Composite Biomaterials
16.3 Surface Treatment
16.3.1 Roughening
16.3.1.1 Blasting
16.3.1.2 Chemical Etching
16.3.1.3 Plasma Etching
16.3.2 Patterning
16.3.2.1 Laser Surface Texturing
16.3.2.2 Lithography
16.3.2.3 Machining
16.3.2.4 Electrospinning
16.4 Coating Deposition
16.4.1 Thermal Spray
16.4.2 Ion Implantation
16.4.3 Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD)
16.4.4 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)
16.4.5 Conversion Coatings
16.4.6 Sol-Gel Coatings
16.4.7 Electrophoretic Deposition (EPD)
16.4.8 Layer-by-Layer Assembly (LBL) Method
16.5 Conclusions
References
17. Surface Functionalization for Biomaterials
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Extracellular Vesicles
17.2.1 Exosomes
17.2.2 Plant-Derived Extracellular Vesicles
17.2.3 Isolation Techniques of EVs
17.3 Sources of Cell Membrane for Biomimetic Coating
17.3.1 Red Blood Cells
17.3.2 Platelets Cells
17.3.3 White Blood Cells
17.3.3.1 Neutrophil Cells
17.3.3.2 Natural Killer Cells
17.3.3.3 T-cell Membranes
17.3.3.4 Dendritic Cells
17.3.3.5 Macrophages Cells
17.3.4 Stem Cells
17.3.5 Cancer Cells
17.3.6 Cellular Organelles' Phospholipid Membrane
17.3.7 Bacterial Cells
17.3.8 Hybrid Cell Membrane
17.4 Techniques for Loading Core Cargoes into Biomimetic Membranes
17.4.1 Loading Cargoes into EVs
17.4.2 Loading Cargoes into Cellular Membranes
17.4.2.1 Co-extrusion
17.4.2.2 Sonication
17.4.2.3 Electroporation
17.4.2.4 Microfluidic Electroporation
17.4.2.5 Cell Membrane Coating Using Graphene Nanoplatform
17.4.2.6 In Situ Packaging Technique of Coating
17.4.2.7 Extra-Optimization Techniques for Camouflaging Cell Membrane
17.5 Conclusion
References
18. Surface Modification Technologies and Methods of Biomaterials
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Biomaterials and Surface Modification
18.2.1 Rigidity and Deformability
18.2.2 Biomaterial Surface Roughness
18.2.3 Chemistry of Substrate's Surface
18.2.4 Surface Preparation
18.3 Surface Modification Technologies and Methods
18.3.1 Physical Properties of the Surface
18.3.2 Surface Coatings
18.3.3 Surface Modification by Chemical Techniques
18.3.3.1 Surface Functionalization of Metallic Biomaterials
18.3.3.2 Surface Functionalization of Polymeric Biomaterials: Selected Examples
18.3.3.3 Conclusions and Research Perspective
References
19. Mechanical Surface Treatments of Biomaterials
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Purpose of Surface Treatments of Biomaterials
19.3 Different Methods of Surface Treatments of Biomaterials
19.3.1 Mechanical Surface Modification Techniques
19.3.1.1 Simple Physical Adsorption
19.3.1.2 Layer-by-Layer Assembly
19.4 Effect of Surface Topography on Biomaterials
19.5 Surface Modification Approaches
19.6 Surface Chemical Group/Charge Modifications
19.6.1 Chemical Methods
19.6.2 Photo-induced Grafting Modification Methods
19.6.3 Plasma Grafting and Plasma Treatment
19.7 Applications of Surface Modification of Biomaterials
19.7.1 Lubricious Surface
19.7.2 Blood-compatible Surface
19.7.3 Microbial Adhesion
19.7.4 Applications in Biocompatibility
19.7.4.1 Hemocompatibility
19.7.4.2 Histocompatibility
19.7.4.3 Drug Delivery
19.7.4.4 Bioactive Surfaces
19.7.5 Plasma-Surface Modification for Blood-Contacting Devices
19.7.6 Application in Clinical Medical Fields
19.8 Conclusions and Future Outlook
Acknowledgment
References
20. Heat Treatment for Biomaterial Surface
20.1 Introduction to Biomaterials
20.1.1 Compatibility of Biomaterials
20.1.2 Different Types of Biomaterials
20.1.3 Biomaterial Surface
20.1.4 Surface Properties of Biomaterials
20.1.5 Surface Degradation of Biomaterials
20.1.6 Different Routes for Surface Modification in Biomaterials
20.2 Heat Treatment of Biomaterials
20.2.1 Solution Heat Treatment
20.2.2 Annealing
20.2.3 Aging
20.2.4 Alkali Heat Treatment
20.2.5 Stress-Relieving Heat Treatment
20.3 Summary
References
21. Surface Modification of Magnetic Nanoparticles for Biomaterials
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Fe3O4NPs Modification with Polysaccharides
21.2.1 Fe3O4NPs Modified with Cellulose or its Derivatives
21.2.1.1 MNPs/Cellulose Systems Prepared via In Situ Way
21.2.1.2 MNPs/Cellulose Systems Prepared via Blending
21.2.1.3 MNPs/Cellulose Systems Prepared via Grafting-onto
21.2.2 Fe3O4NPs Modified with CS or its Derivatives
21.2.2.1 MNPs/CS Systems Prepared via In Situ
21.2.2.2 MNPs/CS Systems Prepared via in Blending
21.2.2.3 MNPs/CS Systems Prepared via Grafting-onto
21.2.3 Fe3O4NPs Modified with St or its Derivatives
21.2.3.1 MNPs/St Systems Prepared via In Situ Way
21.2.3.2 MNPs/St Systems Prepared via Blending
21.2.3.3 MNPs/St Systems Prepared via Grafting-onto
21.2.4 Fe3O4NPs Modified with Pec or its Derivatives
21.2.4.1 MNPs/Pec Systems Prepared via In Situ
21.2.4.2 MNPs/Pec Systems Prepared via Blending
21.2.5 Fe3O4NPs Modified with ฮบ-Car or its Derivatives
21.2.5.1 MNPs/ฮบ-Car Systems Prepared via In Situ
21.2.5.2 MNPs/ฮบ-Car Systems Prepared via Blending
21.2.5.3 MNPs/ฮบ-Car Systems Prepared via Grafting-onto
21.2.6 Fe3O4NPs Modified with Alg or its Derivatives
21.2.6.1 MNPs/Alg Systems Prepared via In Situ
21.2.6.2 MNPs/Alg Systems Prepared via Blending
21.2.6.3 MNPs/Alg Systems Prepared via Grafting-onto
21.2.7 Fe3O4NPs Modified with Two Polysaccharides
21.2.7.1 MNPs/Binary Polysaccharides Systems Prepared via In Situ
21.2.7.2 MNPs/Binary Polysaccharides Systems Prepared via Blending
Acknowledgments
References
22. Phenomenology of Treatment of Biomaterial Surfaces
22.1 Introduction
22.2 History of Biomaterials
22.3 Clinical Need for Selection and Design of Biomaterials
22.4 Classification of Biomaterials
22.5 Metallic Biomaterials for Bone Wound Healing
22.5.1 General Characteristics and Basic Requirements
22.5.2 Physical Approach to Metallic Biomaterial Design
22.5.3 Metals Used as Implants
22.5.3.1 Ti and its Alloys
22.5.3.2 Stainless-steel Alloys
22.5.3.3 Co-Cr-based Alloys
22.5.3.4 Mg-based Alloys
22.5.3.5 Other Metal Alloys
22.5.4 Challenges Faced by Metallic Implants
22.6 Ceramic Materials in BTE
22.6.1 General Properties and Basic Needs
22.6.2 Designing of Ceramic Biomaterials as BTE Scaffolds
22.6.3 Types of Ceramic Implants
22.6.3.1 Alumina-based Implants
22.6.3.2 Zirconia Implants
22.6.3.3 Bioglass Implants
22.6.3.4 CaP-based Implants
22.6.4 Fate of Bioceramics
22.7 Polymeric Biomaterials in BTE
22.7.1 General Characteristics
22.7.2 Fabrication Method of Polymers
22.7.3 Synthetic Polymers as Implants for Hard TE
22.7.4 Future Aspects of Polymeric Biomaterials
22.8 Significance of Composites
22.8.1 Composite Biomaterials as Bone Implants
22.8.2 Future Directions of Composite Materials
22.9 Summary
22.10 Challenges and Future Outlook
References
23. LASER-based Surface Modification Techniques for Fatigue Life Improvement of Biomaterials
23.1 Introduction-Surface Engineering Techniques
23.1.1 Improvement of Fatigue Life through Residual Stress Generation
23.2 Basics of Laser Shock Peening (LSP)
23.2.1 Brief Details of LASER Source
23.2.2 Residual Stress Generation through Laser Shock Peening
23.3 Preview of Materials Used in Medical Devices
23.3.1 Classification of Metallic Alloys for Biomedical Applications
23.4 Effect of Laser Shock Peening on Metallic Alloys and Compounds
23.4.1 Titanium Alloys
23.4.2 Stainless Steel
23.4.3 Ni-Ti Shape Memory Alloys
23.4.4 Biodegradable Mg-alloys
23.4.5 Additively Manufactured Alloys
23.4.6 Effect on Surface Roughness and Contact Angle
23.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
24. Coatings of High Entropy Alloys in Biomedical Applications
24.1 Introduction
24.2 The Coatings of the High Entropy Alloys (HEAs)
24.2.1 Techniques for Fabricating HEA-based Coating
24.2.1.1 Vapor Deposition (VD)
24.2.1.1.1 Vacuum Arc Deposition
24.2.1.1.2 Magnetron Sputtering
24.2.1.2 Thermal Spraying (TS)
24.2.1.2.1 Cold Spray (CS)
24.2.1.2.2 Plasma Spray (PS)
24.2.1.2.3 High Velocity Oxygen Fuel Spray (HVOF)
24.2.1.3 Laser Deposition (LD)
24.2.1.3.1 Plasma Cladding (PC)
24.2.1.3.2 Laser Surface Cladding (LSC)
24.2.1.3.3 Laser Surface Alloying (LSA)
24.2.2 HEA Coatings Classification
24.2.2.1 HEA Coatings on Composites Substrate
24.2.2.2 HEA Coatings on Metallic Substrate
24.2.2.3 HEA Coatings on Ceramics Substrate
24.3 Characterization and Properties of the HEAs Coatings
24.3.1 HEAs Corrosion Resistivity
24.3.2 HEAs Wear Resistivity
24.3.3 HEAs Mechanical Properties
24.3.3.1 HEAs Tensile and Compressive Strengths
24.3.3.2 HEAs Toughness
24.3.3.3 HEAs Stiffness
24.3.3.4 HEAs Elasticity
24.3.3.5 HEAs Ductility
24.3.3.6 HEAs Hardness
24.3.4 Wettability and Surface Charge
24.3.5 Biocompatibility and Surface Chemistry
24.3.6 Topography, Porosity, and Surface Texture
24.4 Summary
References
25. Surface Strategies and Classification of Biomaterials
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Bioceramics
25.2.1 Interactions of Tissues with Different Types of Bioceramics
25.2.2 Bioceramic Properties
25.2.3 Enhancing Bioceramics: Surface Modification Strategies
25.2.4 Laser Surface Treatment: Enhancing Bioceramic Properties
25.2.4.1 Laser-Material Interactions and Mechanisms
25.2.4.2 Laser Surface Texturing: Versatile Patterns and Applications
25.2.4.2.1 Laser Ablation Techniques and Surface Roughness in Medical Applications
25.2.4.2.1.1 The LST Method: Laser Ablation, Surface Textures, and Applications
25.2.4.2.1.2 Direct Laser Interference Patterning (DLIP)
25.2.4.2.1.3 Laser Shock Peening (LSP)
25.3 Conclusion
References
26. Functional Surfaces for Biomaterials
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Surface Functionalization Based on Surface Topographies
26.2.1 Photo Lithography
26.2.2 Laser Holography
26.2.3 Electron Beam Lithography
26.2.4 Colloidal Lithography
26.2.5 Advanced Lithography Techniques
26.2.5.1 Soft Lithography
26.3 Surface Functionalization Based on Wettability of Surfaces
26.3.1 3D Printing
26.3.2 Template-Based Method
26.3.3 Plasma Treatment
26.3.4 Electrospinning
26.3.5 Sol Gel Methods
26.4 Surface Modification to Improve Blood Material Interaction
26.4.1 Physical Adsorption
26.4.2 Physical Entrapment Method
26.4.3 Covalent Immobilization
26.5 Surface Modification with Bioactive to Control Infection
26.5.1 Coatings Based on Hydrophobic Polymer
26.5.2 Anti Adhesive Hydrogels
26.5.2.1 Antimicrobial Peptide (AMP) Based Conjugates
26.5.3 Nanopillar Array Based Coatings
26.5.4 Antimicrobial Coatings for Bactericides
26.5.4.1 Nanocomposite Based Coatings
26.5.4.2 Coating Releasing Antibiotics
26.5.4.3 Coating Releasing AMPs
26.6 Summary
References
Index