Spatial Cognition: An Interdisciplinary Approach to Representing and Processing Spatial Knowledge (Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 1404)

✍ Scribed by Christian Freksa (editor), Christopher Habel (editor), Karl F. Wender (editor)

• Publisher: Springer
• Year: 1998
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 485
• Edition: 1998
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

Research on spatial cognition is a rapidly evolving interdisciplinary enterprise for the study of spatial representations and cognitive spatial processes, be they real or abstract, human or machine. Spatial cognition brings together a variety of - search methodologies: empirical investigations on human and animal orientation and navigation; studies of communicating spatial knowledge using language and graphical or other pictorial means; the development of formal models for r- resenting and processing spatial knowledge; and computer implementations to solve spatial problems, to simulate human or animal orientation and navigation behavior, or to reproduce spatial communication patterns. These approaches can interact in interesting and useful ways: Results from empirical studies call for formal explanations both of the underlying memory structures and of the processes operating upon them; we can develop and - plement operational computer models obeying the relationships between objects and events described by the formal models; we can empirically test the computer models under a variety of conditions, and we can compare the results to the - sults from the human or animal experiments. A disagreement between these results can provide useful indications towards the re nement of the models.

✦ Table of Contents

Front matter
Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence
Spatial Cognition
Preface
Contents
Chapter 1
Allocentric and Egocentric Spatial Representations: Definitions, Distinctions, and Interconnections
1 Reference Frames and Spatial Representations
2 Some Basic Definitions
2.1 Spatial Parameters
2.2 Points and Objects
2.3 Axis of Orientation of an Object
2.4 Heading of an Object
2.5 Bearing Between Two Points
2.6 Distance Between Two Points
3 Core Assumptions
4 Primitives of Allocentric and Egocentric Representations
5 Computation of Derived Properties from Allocentric andEgocentric Representations
5.1 Distance
5.2 Bearing
5.3 Heading
6 Allocentric and Egocentric Representation in Rodents: A SystemsOrganization
7 How Well do Navigators Form Representations of SpatialParameters? Empirical Studies
8 Processes for Computing Egocentric and Allocentric Parameters
9 Imagined Rotation Vs. Translation: Implications for RelationBetween Representations
10 Summary
References
Chapter 2
The Route Direction Effect and its Constraints
1 Introduction: Route Knowledge and the Route DirectionEffect
2 The Route Direction Effect and Asymmetrical Spread o fActivation
3. The Retrieval Situation
4. Conditions of the Acquisition Situation
5. Conclusions
6. References
Chapter 3
Spatial Information and Actions
1 Introduction
1.1 Spatial Mental Representations and the Integration ofNonspatial Information
1.2 Memory for Simple Actions
1.3 Connections between Spatial Information and Actions
1.4 Implicit versus Explicit Measures
2 Study: Spatial Information and Actions
2.1 Method
2.2 Results
2.3 Discussion
3 Further Studies
4 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 4
The Impact of Exogenous Factors on Spatial Coding in
Perception and Memory
1 Introduction
1.1 Hierarchical Coding in Memory
1.2 Hierarchical Coding in Perception
1.3 Present Study
2 Method
2.1 Participants
2.2 Apparatus and Stimuli
1.3 Design
1.4 Procedure
3 Results
4 Discussion
References
Chapter 5
Judging Spatial Relations from Memory
1 Introduction
1.1 Types of Distances
1.2 Modes of Learning
1.3 Methods of Judgment
1.4 Survey Knowledge from Route Learning
1.5 Implicit Versus Explicit Representations
2 Experiment 1
2.1 Method
2.2 Results
2.3 Discussion
3 Experiment 2
3.1 Method
3.2 Results
3.3 Discussion
4 Experiment 3
4.1 Method
4.2 Results
4.3 Discussion
5 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 6
Relations between the mental representation of
extrapersonal space and spatial behavior1
1. Introduction
2. Spatial representation and action
2 . 1 The size of the space
2 . 2 Reference systems
2 . 2 . 1 Empirical evidence for the combined influence of differentreference systems
2.3 Biases, distortions, and hierarchical organization of spatialinformation
2 . 3 . 1 Experiments compairing distortions across differentspatial actions
3 . The format of mental representations of extrapersonalspace
References
Chapter 7
Representational Levels for the Perception of
the Courses of Motion
1 Introduction
2 State of the Art in Psychological Research
3 Results
3.1 Paradigms of Psychophysical Experimentation and Modeling
3.2 Architecture of a Qualitative Model
3.3 Similarity and Complexity
4 Summary and Outlook
References
Chapter 8
How Space Structures Language1
1 Introduction
2 Figures, Objects, Faces
2.1 Figures
2.2 Objects
2 . 3 Faces
2 . 4 Summary of Figures, Objects, and Faces.
3 Spatial Relations
3.1 Schematization and Language of Spatial Relations.
4 Motion
4 . 1 Schematization of Motion.
5 Route Directions and Maps
5 . 1 Essential Information in Descriptions and Depictions.
5 . 2 Schematizing in Descriptions and Depictions.
5 . 3 Sufficiency in Descriptions and Depictions.
6 Schematization of Space in Language and Cognition.
References
Chapter 9
Shape Nouns and Shape Concepts:
A Geometry for ‘Corner’
1 Introduction
1.1 Language and Space: The Role of Conceptual Representations
1.2 Shape Concepts: Axes and Boundaries
2 A First Glance at Corners and Kinks
2.1 Dimensionality
2.2 Sharp Concepts in Flexible Use
3 The Framework of Planar Shape Geometry
3.1 Points and Straight Lines, Incidence and Betweenness
3.2 Half-Planes in Connection to Points and Straight Lines
3.3 Simple and Complex Shape Curves
3.4 Shape Regions
4 Characterizations of &RUQHU and .LQN
4.1 Characterizations of &RUQHU
4.2 Characterizations of .LQN
5 An Analysis of Ecke
6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 10
Typicality Effects in the Categorization of Spatial Relations
1 Introduction
1.1 Background
1.2 Spatial Relations
1.3 Directional Relations and Reference Frames
1.4 Direction Terms as Categories: Use of Cognitive Reference Points
2 Linguistic Analyses
3 Orientation and directional preferences in vision
4 Reports from memory
5 Linguistic hedges
6 Use of direction terms
7 Acceptability judgments
8 Chronometric methods.
9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 11
The Use of Locative Expressions in Dependence of the Spatial Relation bet
ween Target and Reference Object inTwo-Dimensional Layouts*
1 Introduction
2 Experiment 1
2.1 Method
2.2 Results
3 Experiment 2
3.1 Method
3.2 Results
4 General Discussion
References
Chapter 12
Reference Frames for Spatial Inference in Text
Understanding
1 Introduction
2 Frames of Reference
2.1 Is there any overall organizing principle?
2.2 Egocentric reference frame
2.3 Allocentric reference frame
3 Modelling Spatial Inferences by TransformationMatrices and Constraints
3.1 Constructing the graph
3.2 Inferences
4 An Empirical Approach to Online Inferences in SpatialReference Frames
4.1 Spatial framework
4.2 Mental transformation
4.3 An empirical investigation
5 Conclusion and Further Work
References
Chapter 13
Mental Models in Spatial Reasoning
1 Introduction
1.1 Spatial Inference According to Mental Model Theory
2 The Material: Spatial Relations with an Unambiguous Semantic
3 Empirical Evidence and Previous Work
3.1 Premise Integration in Spatial Relational Inference
3.2 Model Construction: Preferred Mental Models
3.3 On the Causal Influence of Preferred Mental Models
3.4 Symmetry Properties of Preferred Mental Models
3.5 The Order of Premises Effect
3.6 The Figural Effect
4 Experiment 1: Order of Premises
4.1 Results
4.2 Discussion
5 Experiment 2: Order of Terms
5.1 Results
5.2 Discussion
6 General Discussion
7 A Computational Approach to Spatial Reasoning with Allen’sInterval Relations
8 The Conceptual Adequacy of Allen’s Interval Relations
9 Conclusions and Future Work
10 Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 14
Formal Models for Cognition -Taxonomy of Spatial Location Description and
Frames of Reference
1 Introduction
2 Overview of the Overall Cognitive Model Used
3 Formalization of the Model
4 Representation of the World
5 Visual Perception and Imagistic Representation
6 Propositional Representation for Direct (‘Egocentric’) View
7 Perception from Other Perspectives
7.1 Construction of an Imagistic Representation from Another Perspective
7.2 Deduction of the Propositional Representation for Another Perspectivefrom the Propositional Ego-Centered Representation
7.3 Comparison of an Imagistic or a Qualitative Transformation to AnotherPerspective
8 Construction of an Absolute Frame of Reference
9 Definition of a Frame of Reference
9.1 Formalization
9.2 Overview of Transformation Steps
10 Descriptions of Spatial Reference Frames
10.1 English Allows the Following Constructions:
10.1.1 Using the Body-Centered Direction Terms (Front, Left, Back, Right):
10.1.2 Using Cardinal Directions (North, West, South, East)
10.1.3 Using Other Direction Terms
10.2 Examples from Other Languages
10.3 Converseness and Transitivity
11 Compare to Usual Terminology
11.1 Absolute Reference Systems
11.2 Egocentric
11.3 Intrinsic
11.4 Retinal
11.5 Deictic
11.6 Relative vs. Absolute
12 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 15
Spatial Representation with Aspect Maps1
1 Introduction: Maps
1.1 Maps as Spatial Representation Media
1.2 Maps and Spatial Cognition
2 Modeling Geographic Knowledge
2.1 Existing Approaches
2.2 Our Research Questions
2.3 Goals
3 The Aspect Map Approach
4 Extraction and Construction of Aspect Maps
4.1 Overview: Operations Involved
4.2 Analyzing Entities and Aspects
4.3 Visualization
5 Combination of Aspect Maps
5.1 An Example: Locating a City Train Station
5.2 A Formal Approach
5.3 An Empirical Study
6 Conclusions and Outlook
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 16
A Hierarchy of Qualitative Representations for
Space ***
1 The Spatial Semantic Hierarchy
2 The Sensorimotor Level
3 The Control Level
3.1 Distinctiveness Measures
3.2 Local Control Laws
3.3 Putting Control into Action
4 The Causal Level
4.1 Views, Actions, and Schemas
4.2 Routines
5 The Topological Level
5.1 Co-occurrence Implies Topological Connections
5.2 Abduction to Places and Paths from Views and Actions
6 The Metrical Level
6.1 Local 1-D Geometry
6.2 Local 2-D Geometry
6.3 Global 2-D Geometry
7 Guarantees
8 Discussion
References
Chapter 17
Spatial Reasoning with Topological Information
1 Introduction
2 Qualitative Spatial Reasoning with RCC
3 Cognitive Plausibility of RCC-8
4 Modal Encoding of RCC-8 and a Canonical Model
4.1 Propositional Modal Logic and Kripke Semantics
4.2 Modal Encoding of RCC-8
4.3 A Canonical Model of RCC-8
5 Representational Properties of RCC-8
5.1 Topological Interpretation of the RCC-8 Model
5.2 Dimension of Spatial Regions
5.3 Representing Regions with the Canonical Model
6 Computational Properties of RCC-8
6.1 Complexity of RCC-8
6.2 Tractable Subsets
6.3 Applicability of Path-Consistency
6.4 Applicability of the Maximal Tractable Subset
7 Summary
References
Chapter 18
A Taxonomy of Spatial Knowledge for Navigation and its Application to the
Bremen Autonomous Wheelchair
1 Introduction
2 A Taxonomy of Spatial Knowledge for Navigation
2.1 Overview
2.2 Basic Behaviors
2.3 Elementary Navigation Tactics
2.4 Tactical Navigation along Routes
2.5 Strategic Navigation, Route Graphs, and Maps
3 The Bremen Autonomous Wheelchair
4 Navigation in Space
5 Route Navigation in Passages
5.1 Basic Behaviors
5.2 Routemark Detection
5.3 Route Knowledge
5.4 Results
6 Structure From Motion for the Visual Detection ofNatural Landmarks and Routemarks
6.1 Method
6.2 Computer Simulations
6.3 Early Results
6.4 Future Perspective
7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 19
Human Place Learning in a Computer Generated
Arena1
1 Introduction
1 . 1 The Task: General Methods
1 . 2 Study 1: Acquisition
1 . 3 Study 2: Proximal vs. Distal Cues
1 . 4 Study 3: Generalizing From Familiar to Novel Start Locations
1 . 5 Study 4: The Effects of Cue Removal
1 . 6 Study 5: The Role of Spatial Relations Among Distal Cues
1 . 7 Overview of the Initial Studies
1 . 8 Study 6: Placement Learning
1 . 9 Study 7: Observational Learning
1 . 1 0 Study 8: Latent Learning by Movement
1 . 1 1 Overview of the Second Series of Studies
1 . 1 2 Study 9: The Impact of Brain Damage
1 . 1 3 Study 10: Changes With Aging
2 . Conclusions
References
Chapter 20
Spatial Orientation and Spatial Memory Within a ‘Locomotor Maze’ for Humans
1 Introduction
2 METHOD
2.1 Apparatus
2.2 General Procedure
3 Experiments
3.1 Assessing cue dependent orientation
3.2 Dissociating spatial reference and working memory errors
3.3 Identifying place orientation
4 General Discussion
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 21
Behavioral experiments in spatial cognition
using virtual reality
1 General Introduction
1.1 Mechanisms and competences
1.2 The view{graph approach to cognitive maps
1.3 Behavioral experiments in virtual reality
2 Virtual environments
2.1 Hexatown
2.2 Virtual T•ubingen
3 Acquisition of spatial knowledge in Hexatown
3.1 Methods
3.2 Exploration performance
3.3 Knowledge Transfer across Routes
3.4 Persistence
4 Discussion
4.1 Navigation in virtual environments
4.2 View{based navigation
4.3 Local information combined to a graph?
5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 22
Spatial orientation in virtual environments: Background considerations and experiments
1 Introduction
2 Actor-centered coding of spatial information
3 Virtual environments as a tool for research on spatialcognition
4 Triangle completion experiments
4.1 Experiment 1
4.2 Experiment 2
5 Applying the Encoding-Error Model
6 General Discussion
7 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Back matter
Author Index