PV Technology and Manufacturing (Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation)

✍ Scribed by Abdul Hai Alami (editor)

• Publisher: Springer
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 185
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

This book discusses the manufacturing processes of photovoltaic solar cells, from conventional silicon cells, to thin-film technologies and ending with the cutting-edge technologies of third-generation photovoltaics. The rapid advances in photovoltaic technologies are propelled by the discovery of new materials through innovative routes of synthesis and deposition. For example, the exponential enhancement in efficiencies of perovskite solar cells between years 2015 and 2020 is a direct result of the availability of new materials to capitalize on innovative manufacturing techniques. Currently, efficiencies of up to 25.5% are achieved by perovskite solar cells technologies. 

This book is intended for scientists and engineers who are keen on having a solid understanding of conventional manufacturing processes of bulk silicon for photovoltaic purposes, as well as advanced processes used to synthesize materials for emerging photovoltaic technologies such as thin-film and third-generation PV. The book is designed to be self-contained to allow the reader to develop knowledge and experience in materials selection as well as a good understanding of pertinent manufacturing process to arrive at best device performance. The technologies presented are also analyzed for its energy and environmental impacts. 

✦ Table of Contents

Foreword
Preface
Contents
List of Figures
1 Introduction to Photovoltaic Cell Manufacturing
Abstract
1 Introduction to Solar Photovoltaics Manufacturing
References
2 First-Generation Photovoltaics: History and Conventional Manufacturing
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 PV Technologies Introduction and Proliferation
3 History of Manufacturing Technology
4 Harmonizing Materials and Manufacturing Processes
5 Life Cycle Analysis of Photovoltaic Technologies
5.1 PV Systems Components and Technologies-To-Be-Analyzed
5.2 Energy Impact and Emissions of Silicon Solar PV Technologies
References
3 Silicon Feedstock and Ultra-Refinement
Abstract
1 The Carbothermal Refinement Process
2 Silicon Ultra-Refinement
2.1 Siemens Process
2.2 Fluidized Bed Reactor Process
3 Monocrystalline Silicon Production
3.1 The Czochralski Process
3.2 Float Zone Process
4 Multi-crystalline Silicon (MS-Si) Production Processes
4.1 String Ribbon Process
4.2 Ribbon Growth Technique
4.3 Comparison Between Bulk Process and Ribbon Growth
5 Silicon Post-processing
References
4 Solar Grade Silicon Feedstock Properties
Abstract
1 Introduction to Energy Bandgap
1.1 Shockley–Queisser Limit
1.2 Bandgap and Semiconductors
2 Physical Properties of Silicon
2.1 Effect of Doping on Silicon Properties
3 Chemical Properties of Silicon
4 Photovoltaic Primer
4.1 n-Type Versus p-Type
4.2 Equivalent Circuits
4.3 Performance Calculations
5 Generation and Recombination
5.1 Unavoidable Recombination
5.2 Avoidable Recombination
References
5 Manufacturing of Silicon Solar Cells and Modules
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Silicon Bulk Properties
2.1 Bandgap Selection and Tuning
2.2 Carrier Concentration
2.3 Recombination
2.4 Electron Mobility
2.5 Surface Contacts
3 Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells
3.1 Cell Contact Design
3.2 PERL and Commercial Cells
4 Conventional Solar Cell Manufacturing
4.1 Substrate Selection
4.2 Doping Level and Type
4.3 Cell Thickness
4.4 Front Surface
4.5 Homogenous Emitters
4.6 Heterojunction Solar Cell Structure
5 Industrial Cells
5.1 Back Surface Field
5.2 Cell Size Effects
5.3 Cell Optics
5.4 Texturing of Cell Surface
5.5 Light Trapping
6 Module Manufacturing Processes Overview
6.1 Starting Materials and Processes
6.2 Saw Damage Removal
6.3 Texturing
6.3.1 Chemical Texturing
6.3.2 Plasma Texturing
6.3.3 Mechanical Texturing
6.4 Phosphorus Diffusion
6.4.1 Quartz Furnace
6.4.2 Belt Furnace
7 Cell Optical Enhancements
7.1 Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD)
7.2 Direct PECVD
7.3 Remote PECVD
7.4 Sputtering Techniques
8 Front Contact Print and Dry
8.1 Screen Printing
8.1.1 Screen Printing Process
8.1.2 Paste Properties
8.1.3 Process Parameters
9 Back Surface Field Deposition
10 Drying and Co-Firing
11 Testing and Sorting
12 Module Making
References
6 Second-Generation Photovoltaics: Thin-Film Technologies
Abstract
1 Introduction and Importance
2 Overview of Manufacturing Techniques
3 Available Thin-Film Photovoltaic Technologies
3.1 Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) Solar Cells
3.1.1 CdTe Cell Efficiency
3.2 Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS) Solar Cells
3.2.1 Cell Manufacturing Considerations
3.2.2 Device Structure and Construction
3.2.3 History of Device Efficiency
3.2.4 Manufacturing Technologies
3.3 Gallium Arsenide Thin-Film Cells
3.4 Amorphous Silicon Solar Cells (a-Si)
3.4.1 Manufacturing Technologies
3.4.2 Cell Efficiency
3.4.3 Tandem-Cell Using A-Si/μc-S
3.4.4 Polycrystalline Silicon on Glass
3.4.5 Doping of Amorphous Silicon
3.4.6 Amorphous Silicon Manufacturing Techniques
3.4.7 Deposition Techniques for Amorphous Silicon
References
7 Third-Generation Photovoltaics: Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSC)
Abstract
1 Introduction
1.1 Roll-To-Roll (R2R) Manufacturing
1.2 Third-Generation PV Cell Structure
2 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs)
2.1 Grätzel Cell
2.2 DSSC Cell Structure
3 Operating Mechanism
4 Energy Levels and Recombination Prevention
5 Generated Voltage
6 Space Charge and the Electric Field
7 Depletion Zone/Charge Separation
8 Open Circuit Voltage Considerations
9 Short Circuit Current Considerations
10 Surface Area Considerations
11 Charge Collection Efficiency
12 The Fill Factor
13 Components of DSSC
13.1 TCO Electrode
13.2 Nanocrystalline TiO2 Photo-Electrode
13.3 Preparation of the TiO2 Electrode
13.4 Adsorption Properties of Dyes
13.5 Dye Preparation
13.6 Redox Electrolyte
13.7 Counter-Electrode
14 Performance of Highly Efficient DSSCs
14.1 Performance of Ru Sensitizer-Based DSSCs
14.2 Mechanism of Dye to Metal Oxide Electron Injection
14.3 Commercialization
14.4 Connectivity Options
15 Do-It-Yourself (DIY) Project and Case Study
References
8 Third-Generation Photovoltaics: Organic Photovoltaics (OPV)
Abstract
1 History and Background
2 Physics of Organic Photovoltaics
3 Organic PV Cell Structure
4 Materials and Fabrication Techniques
4.1 Solvents
4.2 Hole-Transport Materials
4.3 Deposition on Substrates
4.3.1 Glass Substrates
4.3.2 Flexible Substrates
4.4 Compatibility with Roll-To-Roll
4.5 Spin Coating for OPV Manufacturing
4.6 Slot-Die Coating
4.7 Overall Fabrication Process
4.8 Scaling up OPV for Commercial Use
4.9 Recent Progress of Organic Solar Cells
4.10 Summary for Substrates Selection
References
9 Third-generation Photovoltaics: Perovskite Solar Cells (PSC)
Abstract
1 History and Definition
2 Perovskite Solar Cell Structure and Operation
3 Cell Performance and Optical Bandgap
4 Progress in Perovskite Solar Cells
4.1 Improving Stability at a High Relative Humidity
4.2 Perovskite Solar Cell Efficiency Progress
4.3 Available Manufacturing Technologies
5 Do-it-yourself DIY Perovskite Project
5.1 Substrate Preparation
5.2 Electron Transport Layer (ETL) Deposition
5.3 Perovskite Preparation and Deposition
5.4 Hole Transport Layer and Counter Electrode
References
10 Recent Advances in Solar Cells
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Tandem Silicon/Perovskite Solar Cells
2.1 Manufacturing
2.2 Efficiency
2.3 Challenges
2.3.1 Transparent Electrodes
2.3.2 Scalability
2.3.3 Stability
2.3.4 Tin, Lead and Bromide
2.4 Environmental Impact and Recycling
2.5 Characterization
2.5.1 Morphological, Structural and Compositional Characterization
2.5.2 Optical Characterization
2.5.3 Radiative Characterization
2.5.4 External Quantum Efficiency Spectra
2.5.5 Current–Voltage Characterization
2.5.6 Stability Characterization
3 Bifacial Solar Photovoltaics
3.1 PERC
3.2 PERT
3.3 PERL
3.4 HJT
3.5 IBC
3.6 TOPCon
4 Semi-transparent Bifacial
5 Semi-transparent Organic Solar Cells (ST-OSC)
6 Semi-transparent Perovskite Solar Cells (ST-PSC)
7 Agrivoltaic Applications: Large-scale Projects in Arid Areas
8 Agrivoltaic Case Studies
8.1 India
8.2 Africa
8.3 Agrivoltaics Projects in Europe
9 Flexible Solar Cells
9.1 Substrate Types for Flexible Solar Cells
9.2 Metal Substrates
9.3 Ceramic Substrates
9.4 Plastic Substrates
9.5 Electrode Materials for Flexible Solar Cells
9.5.1 Thin-film Metals
9.5.2 Transparent Conducting Oxide
9.5.3 Metal Nanowires
9.5.4 Nanocarbons
9.5.5 Conducting Polymers
References
11 Characterization Techniques for Photovoltaics Manufacturing
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 X-Ray Diffraction
3 Scanning Electron Microscopy
4 Atomic Force Microscopy
5 UV–Visible Spectrophotometry
6 Solar Simulator (Power Conversion Efficiency Measurement)
7 Quantum Efficiency
8 Time-Resolved Photo Luminescence
9 Raman Spectroscopy
10 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy
References
12 Third-Generation Photovoltaic Cell Manufacturing Processes
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Photolithography
3 Screen Printing
3.1 Screen Printing—CdTe Thin-Film Solar Cells
3.2 Screen Printing—Silicon Solar Cells Contacts
3.3 Screen Printing—Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells
4 Spin Coating
4.1 System Components
4.1.1 Device Hub
4.1.2 Motor
4.1.3 Substrate Holder
4.1.4 Cover
4.1.5 Interface
4.2 Coating Steps and Principle
5 Slot-Die Coating
5.1 Device Components
5.2 Slot-Die-Head
5.3 Metering System
5.3.1 Syringe Pump
5.3.2 Rotary Pumps
5.4 Coating Principle
5.4.1 Capillary Model
5.4.2 Viscous Model
5.4.3 Viscocapillary Model
5.5 Slot-Die Coating in Third-Generation Solar Cells
6 Thermal Evaporation
6.1 Device Components
6.2 Thermal Evaporation Coating Steps
7 Doctor Blade Coating
8 Curtain Coating
9 Pad Printing
10 Spray Coating
11 Dip Coating
References