Practical Research: Planning and Design

✍ Scribed by Paul D. Leedy, Jeanne Ellis Ormrod

• Publisher: Pearson College Div
• Year: 2018
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 480
• Edition: 12°
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

An engaging, cross-disciplinary guide to research methodology
Practical Research: Planning and Design is a do-it-yourself, how-to manual for planning and conducting research. Suitable for a wide variety of courses in basic research methodology, the book uses a conversational tone, step-by-step instructions, and practical suggestions to guide the reader from the selection of a problem to the preparation of a completed report.

The 12th Edition has been updated to include the latest technology-based strategies and online tools. Other key changes include a better balance between quantitative and qualitative methods and the addition of a new chapter on action research.

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✦ Table of Contents

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Acknowledgments
Global Edition Acknowledgments
Brief Contents
Contents
PART I The Fundamentals
Chapter 1
The Nature and Tools of Research
What Research Is Not
What Research Is
Philosophical Assumptions Underlying Research Methodologies
Tools of Research
The Library and Its Resources
Computer Technology
Measurement
Statistics
Language
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Communicating Effectively Through Writing
GUIDELINES: Writing to Communicate
GUIDELINES: Using the Tools in Word‐Processing Software
The Human Mind
Critical Thinking
Deductive Logic
Inductive Reasoning
Scientific Method
Theory Building
Collaboration with Other Minds
Reflections on Noteworthy Research
Exploring Research in Your Field
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Identifying Important Tools in Your Discipline
CHECKLIST: Interviewing an Expert Researcher
Application Exercises
For Further Reading
PART II Focusing Your Research Efforts
Chapter 2
The Problem: The Heart of the Research Process
Finding Research Projects
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Identifying and Presenting the Research Problem or Question
GUIDELINES: Choosing an Appropriate Problem or Question
GUIDELINES: Writing a Purpose Statement
CHECKLIST: Evaluating a Purpose Statement
Dividing the Main Research Problem or Question into Subproblems
Subproblems Versus Pseudo‐Subproblems
Characteristics of Subproblems
Identifying Subproblems
Taking a Paper‐and‐Pencil Approach
Using Mind‐Mapping (Brainstorming) Software
Every Research Problem Needs Further Delineation
Identifying a Relevant Theoretical or Conceptual Framework
Stating Hypotheses
Distinguishing Between Research Hypotheses and Null Hypotheses in Quantitative Research
Identifying the General Concepts and Possibly Also Specific Variables That Are the Focus of the Investigation
CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS EXERCISE: Identifying Independent, Dependent, Mediating, and Moderating Variables
Defining Terms
Stating Assumptions
Identifying Delimitations and Limitations
Importance of the Study
Writing the First Chapter or Section of a Research Proposal
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Writing the First Section of a Proposal
Checklist: Evaluating Your Proposed Research Project
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Reappraising a Proposed Research Problem
Guidelines: Fine‐Tuning Your Research Problem or Question
Application Exercises
For Further Reading
Chapter 3
Review of the Related Literature
Understanding the Role of the Literature Review
Strategies for Locating Related Literature
Using the Library Catalog
Using Online Databases
Consulting with Reference Librarians
Surfing the Internet
Using Citations and Reference Lists of Scholars Who Have Gone Before You
Identifying Your Sources: The Importance of Adhering to an Appropriate Style Manual
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Planning a Literature Search
GUIDELINES: Using Your Library Time Efficiently
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Evaluating the Research of Others
CHECKLIST: Evaluating a Research Article
Knowing When to Quit
Organizing and Synthesizing the Literature into a Cohesive Review
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Writing the Literature Review
GUIDELINES: Writing a Clear and Cohesive Literature Review
A Sample Literature Review
Application Exercises
For Further Reading
Chapter 4
Planning Your Research Project
Planning a General Approach
Research Planning Versus Research Methodology
The Nature and Role of Data in Research
Data Are Transient and Ever Changing
Primary Data Versus Secondary Data
Planning for Data Collection
Linking Data and Research Methodology
Comparing Quantitative and Qualitative Methodologies
Combining Quantitative and Qualitative Designs
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Choosing a General Research Approach
GUIDELINES: Deciding Whether to Use a Quantitative or Qualitative Approach
Choosing Methods That Enhance the Value of Your Research Project
Enhancing the Credibility of Your Findings
Enhancing the Generalizability of Your Findings
Choosing Appropriate Assessment Strategies
Distinguishing Between Substantial and Intangible Phenomena
Assessing Intangible Phenomena: An Example
Types of Measurement Scales
Nominal Scales
Ordinal Scales
Interval Scales
Ratio Scales
CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS EXERCISE: Identifying Scales of Measurement
Validity and Reliability in Assessment
Validity of Assessment Strategies
Reliability of Assessment Strategies
Thinking of Validity and Reliability as Reflections of Error in Your Assessments
CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS EXERCISE: Identifying Problems with Validity and Reliability in Assessment Strategies
Ethical Issues in Research
Protection from Harm
Voluntary and Informed Participation
Right to Privacy
Honesty with Professional Colleagues
Institutional Review Boards
Professional Codes of Ethics
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Planning an Ethical Research Study
CHECKLIST: Determining Whether Your Proposed Study Is Ethically Defensible
Critically Scrutinizing Your Overall Plan
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Judging the Feasibility of a Research Project
CHECKLIST: Determining Whether a Proposed Research Project Is Realistic and Practical
When You Can’t Anticipate Everything in Advance: The Value of a Pilot Study
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Developing a Plan of Attack
Using Project Management Software and Electronic Planners
Keeping an Optimistic and Task‐Oriented Outlook
Application Exercises
For Further Reading
Chapter 5
Writing the Research Proposal
Characteristics of a Proposal
A Proposal Is a Straightforward Document
A Proposal Is Not a Literary Production
A Proposal Is Clearly Organized
Organizing and Writing a Research Proposal
Formatting Headings and Subheadings
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Writing Your Proposal
GUIDELINES: Writing the First Draft
GUIDELINES: Revising Your Proposal
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Strengthening Your Proposal
CHECKLIST: Evaluating an Early Draft of a Research Proposal
Final Thoughts About Proposal Writing
A Sample Research Proposal
Application Exercises
For Further Reading
PART III Research Designs
Chapter 6
Descriptive Research
Descriptive Research Designs
Observation Studies
Correlational Research
A Caution About Interpreting Correlational Results
Developmental Designs
Experience‐Sampling Methods
Survey Research
Face‐to‐Face and Telephone Interviews
Questionnaires
Planning for Data Collection in a Descriptive Study
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Using Checklists, Rating Scales, and Rubrics
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Computerizing Observations
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Planning and Conducting Interviews in a Quantitative Study
GUIDELINES: Conducting Interviews in a Quantitative Study
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Constructing and Administering a Questionnaire
GUIDELINES: Constructing a Questionnaire
GUIDELINES: Using Technology to Facilitate Questionnaire Administration and Data Analysis
GUIDELINES: Maximizing Your Return Rate for a Questionnaire
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Using the Internet to Collect Data for a Descriptive Study
Choosing a Sample in a Descriptive Study
Sampling Designs
Probability Sampling
Nonprobability Sampling
Sampling in Surveys of Very Large Populations
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Identifying a Sufficient Sample Size
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Choosing an Appropriate Sample in Descriptive Research
CHECKLIST: Considering the Nature of the Population When Identifying Your Sampling Procedure
Common Sources of Bias in Descriptive Studies
Sampling Bias
Instrumentation Bias
Response Bias
Researcher Bias
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Acknowledging the Probable Presence of Bias in Descriptive Research
GUIDELINES: Identifying Possible Sampling Bias in Questionnaire Research
CHECKLIST: Identifying Potential Sources of Bias in a Descriptive Study
Interpreting Data in Descriptive Research
Some Final Suggestions
A Sample Dissertation
Application Exercises
For Further Reading
Chapter 7
Experimental, Quasi‐Experimental, and Ex Post Facto Designs
The Importance of Control
Controlling for Confounding Variables
Types of Experimental, Quasi‐Experimental, and Ex Post Facto Designs
Pre‐Experimental Designs
Design 1: One‐Shot Experimental Case Study
Design 2: One‐Group Pretest–Posttest Design
Design 3: Static Group Comparison
True Experimental Designs
Design 4: Control‐Group Pretest–Posttest Design
Design 5: Solomon Four‐Group Design
Design 6: Control‐Group Posttest‐Only Design
Design 7: Within‐Subjects Design
Quasi‐Experimental Designs
Design 8: Nonrandomized Control‐Group Pretest–Posttest Design
Design 9: Simple Time‐Series Design
Design 10: Control‐Group Time‐Series Design
Design 11: Reversal Time‐Series Design
Design 12: Alternating‐Treatments Design
Design 13: Multiple‐Baseline Design
Using Designs 11, 12, and 13 in Single‐Case Intervention Research
Ex Post Facto Designs
Design 14: Simple Ex Post Facto Design
Factorial Designs
Design 15: Two‐Factor Experimental Design
Design 16: Combined Experimental and Ex Post Facto Design
CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS EXERCISE: Identifying Quantitative Research Designs
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Determining Possible Cause‐and‐Effect Relationships
CHECKLIST: Looking for Confounding Variables
Meta‐Analyses
Conducting Experiments on the Internet
Testing Your Hypotheses, and Beyond
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Acknowledging the Probable Presence of Bias in Experimental Research
CHECKLIST: Identifying Potential Sources of Bias and Potential Threats to External Validity in an Experimental, Quasi‐Experimental, or Ex Post Facto Study
A Sample Dissertation
Application Exercises
For Further Reading
Chapter 8
Qualitative Research Methods
Research Problems and Methodology Choice in Qualitative Research
Potential Advantages of a Qualitative Approach
Qualitative Research Designs
Case Study
Ethnography
Phenomenological Study
Grounded Theory Study
Narrative Inquiry
Content Analysis
CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS EXERCISE: Choosing a Qualitative Research Design
Collecting Data in Qualitative Research
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Ensuring That Qualitative Data Collection Yields Credible, Trustworthy Data
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Selecting an Appropriate Sample for a Qualitative Study
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Making Observations in a Qualitative Study
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Planning and Conducting Interviews in a Qualitative Study
GUIDELINES: Conducting a Productive Interview
An Example in International Relations
Using Technology to Facilitate Collection of Interview Data
Criteria for Evaluating Qualitative Research
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Planning the Logistics of a Qualitative Study
CHECKLIST: Pinning Down the Methodology of a Qualitative Study
A Sample Dissertation
Application Exercises
For Further Reading
Chapter 9
Mixed‐Methods Designs
When Mixed‐Methods Designs Are Most Useful and Appropriate
General Categories of Mixed‐Methods Research
Convergent Designs
Exploratory Sequential Designs
Explanatory Sequential Designs
Longitudinal Mixed‐Methods Designs
Multiphase Iterative Designs
CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS EXERCISE: Identifying Mixed‐Methods Research Designs
Planning a Mixed‐Methods Study
Identifying Research Questions and Hypotheses
Conducting the Literature Review
Choosing One or More Appropriate Samples
Ensuring That the Study Will Have Reasonable Credibility
Analyzing and Interpreting the Data
Special Ethical Considerations in Mixed‐Methods Research
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Deciding Whether to Use a Mixed‐Methods Design
CHECKLIST: Pinning Down the Logistics and Feasibility of a Mixed‐Methods Study
A Sample Dissertation
Application Exercises
For Further Reading
Chapter 10
Action Research and Participatory Designs
Action‐Oriented Models and Designs
Action Research/Teacher Research
Design‐Based Research (DBR)
Participatory Action Research (PAR) and Youth Participatory Action Research (YPAR)
Community‐Based Research (CBR) Models
Course‐Based Action Research
Community‐Based Participatory Research
Community‐Based Qualitative Research
CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS EXERCISE: Choosing an Action‐Oriented Design
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Deciding Whether to Use Action Research and/or a Participatory Design
CHECKLIST: Pinning Down the Logistics and Feasibility of Action Research, a Participatory Design, or a Combination of the Two
Data Collection and Analysis in Action Research
Disseminating the Findings of Action Research Projects
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Using Community Forums as a Means of Disseminating the Results of Action Research and Participatory Research Projects
GUIDELINES: Planning and Conducting an Effective Community Forum
A Sample Research Report
Application Exercises
For Further Reading
PART IV Data Analyses
Chapter 11
Analyzing Quantitative Data
Exploring and Organizing a Data Set
Organizing Data to Make Them Easier to Think About and Interpret
Using Computer Spreadsheets to Organize and Analyze Data
Choosing Appropriate Statistics
Functions of Statistics
Statistics as Estimates of Population Parameters
Considering the Nature of the Data
Single‐Group Versus Multi‐Group Data
Continuous Versus Discrete Variables
Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, and Ratio Data
Normal and Non‐Normal Distributions
Choosing Between Parametric and Nonparametric Statistics
Descriptive Statistics
Measures of Central Tendency
Curves Determine Means
Measures of Central Tendency as Predictors
Measures of Variability: Dispersion and Deviation
How Great Is the Spread?
Using the Mean and Standard Deviation to Calculate Standard Scores
Keeping Measures of Central Tendency and Variability in Perspective
Measures of Association: Correlation
How Validity and Reliability of Assessment Strategies Affect Correlation Coefficients
A Reminder About Correlations
Inferential Statistics
Estimating Population Parameters
An Example: Estimating a Population Mean
Point Versus Interval Estimates
Testing Hypotheses
Making Errors in Hypothesis Testing
Examples of Statistical Techniques for Testing Hypotheses
Meta‐Analysis
Using Statistical Software Packages
Interpreting the Data
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Analyzing and Interpreting Data in a Quantitative Study
CHECKLIST: Choosing Statistical Procedures
A Sample Dissertation
Application Exercises
For Further Reading
Chapter 12
Analyzing Qualitative and Mixed‐Methods Data
Qualitative Analysis Strategies
General Strategies for Organizing and Analyzing Qualitative Data
Creswell’s Data Analysis Spiral
An Example: Data Analysis in a Grounded Theory Study
An Example: Data Analysis in a Content Analysis Study
An Example: Data Analysis in an Ethnographic Study
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Using Computer Databases to Facilitate Data Organization and Analysis
Acknowledging the Role of Researcher‐as‐Instrument in Qualitative Research
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Planning Data Analysis for a Qualitative Study
CHECKLIST: Pinning Down the Data Analysis in a Qualitative Study
Analyzing and Interpreting Mixed‐Methods Data
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Using Computer Software Programs to Facilitate Mixed‐Methods Data Analysis
Systematic Reviews of Qualitative and Mixed‐Methods Studies
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Observing How Experienced Researchers Have Conducted Qualitative and Mixed‐Methods Research
CHECKLIST: Evaluating a Qualitative or Mixed‐Methods Study
A Sample Dissertation
Application Exercises
For Further Reading
PART V Research Reports
Chapter 13
Planning and Preparing a Final Research Report
Getting Started
Surfing the Internet for Writing Assistance
Learn by Looking
Essential Elements of a Research Report
Explanation of the Research Problem or Question
Description of Study Design and Data‐Collection Methods
Presentation of the Data and Their Analyses
Interpretations of the Data
Identification of Possible Weaknesses of the Study
Summary and Connections to a Broader Context
Maintaining Your Academic Integrity
Front Matter and End Matter
Preliminary Pages
Footnotes and Endnotes
Reference List
Appendix Content
Organizing a Research Report
Writing—and Finishing!—a Report
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Writing Your Final Report
GUIDELINES: Writing a Clear, Coherent Report
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Developing a Writing Schedule
GUIDELINES: Pinning Down and Adhering to a Workable Schedule
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Critiquing a Final Research Report
CHECKLIST: Criteria for Critiquing a Research Report
Beyond the Unpublished Research Report: Presenting and Publishing
Conference Presentations
PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Presenting Your Research at a Professional Conference
GUIDELINES: Presenting an Effective Paper or Poster
Journal Articles
Sharing Authorship
Responding to Reviewers’ Critiques
A Closing Thought
Application Exercises
For Further Reading
Appendices
Appendix A Using a Spreadsheet: Microsoft Excel
Using Excel to Keep Track of Literature Resources
Using Excel to Record and Recode Data
Reorganizing Data in Excel
Using Excel to Perform Simple Statistical Analyses
Appendix B Using SPSS
Creating a Data Set
Computing Basic Descriptive Statistics
Computing Inferential Statistics
Glossary
References
Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
Y
Z