Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Contributors
1 Introduction
1 Context
References
Part I: Bacterial Polysaccharides
2 Glucans
1 Introduction
2 Glucans and the Immune System: Firsts Experiments
3 Immune Responses
3.1 Basis of the Immune Response to Polysaccharides
3.2 Dectin-1 Receptor
3.2.1 Other Dectin-1 Triggers
3.3 Glucan as Immunoadjuvant
3.3.1 Oral Administration
4 Final Considerations
References
3 Levan
1 Introduction
2 Extraction, Isolation, Purification and Production Advanced Processes
2.1 Production by Fermentation
2.2 Enzymatic Production
3 Structural, Physicochemical, and Biological Properties
3.1 Structural Properties
3.2 Rheology
3.3 Degree of Branching
3.4 Molecular Weight
3.5 Adhesive
3.6 Anti-Inflammatory and Antioxidant Activity
3.7 Immunostimulant
3.8 Description of the Advanced Functionalization and Modification Methods
4 Applications and Uses in Medical and Pharmaceutical Fields
4.1 Healing Damaged Tissue
4.2 Cholesterol
4.3 Diabetes
4.4 Anticancer Activity
4.5 Calcium Absorption
4.6 Toxicity Decrease
4.7 Antimicrobial
4.8 Ulcer Treatment
4.9 Pharmaceuticals
5 Conclusions
References
4 Gums
1 Introduction
2 Production of Microorganism Gums
3 Antimicrobial Properties
4 Antioxidant Action
5 Anticancer Activity
6 Healing Capacity
7 Drug Delivery
8 Challenges in Microbial Gums
9 Conclusions
References
5 The Promise and Challenge of Microbial Alginate Production: A Product with Novel Applications
1 Introduction
2 Biosynthesis of Alginates and Their Biological Functions in Producing Bacteria
2.1 Postpolymerization Modification of Alginate
2.2 Biological Role of Alginate Production
3 Industrial Production of Microbial Alginate: Challenges and Opportunities
3.1 Technical Challenges in Alginate Production from A. vinelandii
3.2 Nonpathogenic Strains of Pseudomonas as Promising Alginate Producers
4 Applications of Alginate in Food, Pharmaceutical, and Biomedical Sectors
4.1 Alginate Applications in Food Sectors
4.2 Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Applications of Alginate
5 Conclusion
References
6 Kefiran
1 Introduction
2 Kefiran from Kefir Grains and Kefir
3 Kefiran Structure
4 Kefiran from Microorganisms Isolated from Kefir Grains
5 Kefiran Production for Industrial Application
6 Biological Activity of Kefiran
6.1 Antimicrobial Activity
6.2 Bifidogenic Activity
6.3 Modulation of Immune and Inflammatory Response
6.4 Antitumoral
6.5 Other Biological Activities
7 Physicochemical and Functional Properties of Kefiran
7.1 Kefiran as Thickener Agent
7.2 Kefiran Gels
7.3 Kefiran-Based Films
7.4 Kefiran in Emulsions
8 Biomedical Application of Kefiran
9 Conclusion
References
7 Microbial Glucuronans and Succinoglycans
1 Introduction
2 Glucuronans
2.1 Sources and Structures of Microbial Glucuronans (GP)
2.2 Enzymatically and Chemically Oxidized Glucans
2.3 Enzymes Acting on Glucuronans
3 Succinoglycans
3.1 Sources and Structures of Microbial Succinoglycans
3.2 Enzymes Acting on Succinoglycan
4 Rheology of Glucuronan and Succinoglycan
5 Conclusions
References
8 Cyanobacterial Extracellular Polymeric Substances (EPS)
1 Introduction
2 Cyanobacterial Extracellular Polymeric Substances (EPS) and Their Biological Roles
3 Biosynthesis
3.1 First Steps and Modification Enzymes
3.2 Assembly and Export
3.3 Regulatory Mechanisms
4 Optimization of Production and Isolation Procedures
5 Composition and Structure
5.1 Tailoring
6 Biotechnological Applications
6.1 Water Treatment and Soil Conditioning
6.2 Food, Personal Care, and Other Industries
6.3 Biomedical
7 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
9 Glycosaminoglycans
1 Introduction
2 Structural Features
2.1 Heparin (HEP) and Heparan Sulfate (HPS)
2.2 Chondroitin Sulfate (CS) and Dermatan Sulfate (DS)
2.3 Keratan Sulfate (KS)
2.4 Hyaluronan/Hyaluronic Acid (HA)
3 Biosynthesis
4 Industrial Production of GAGs
5 Bacterial Production of GAGs
5.1 Bacterial Hyaluronan
5.2 Bacterial Chondroitin
5.3 Bacterial Heparosan
6 Properties and Clinical Applications
6.1 Hyaluronan
6.2 Chondroitin Sulfate and Dermatan Sulfate
6.3 Heparin and Heparan Sulfate
6.4 Keratan Sulfate
7 Conclusions and Future Trends
References
Part II: Fungal and Microalgal Polysaccharides
10 Botryosphaeran
1 Introduction
2 Chemical Structure of Botryosphaeran
2.1 A Family of Botryosphaerans
2.2 Sulfonylation of Botryosphaeran: Anticoagulant and Antiviral Activities
3 Antimutagenicity and Chemopreventive Effect of Botryosphaeran
4 Anti-Obesogenic Activity of Botryosphaeran
5 Hypoglycemia and Hypocholesterolemia Exhibited by Botryosphaeran
5.1 Improving the Diabetic Condition
5.2 Improving the Dyslipidemic Condition
6 Anticancer Activity of Botryosphaeran
7 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
11 Chitin and Its Derivatives
1 Introduction
2 Chitin Extraction and Structure
3 Chitin and Chitosan Properties
4 Chitin and Chitosan-Based Matrices: Processability and Chemical Modification
5 Biomedical Applications of Chitin and its Derivatives
5.1 Skin Regeneration
5.2 Bone Repair
5.3 Cartilage Regeneration
5.4 Infectious Diseases
6 Conclusions
References
12 Chitosan
1 Fungi Chitosan
1.1 Production
1.2 Extraction and Isolation
1.3 Purification and Production Advanced Processes
2 Biochemical and Biological Characteristics
2.1 Physicochemical Properties
2.1.1 Degree of Deacetylation
2.2 Biological Properties
3 Biotechnology Applications
3.1 Applications and Uses in the Pharmaceutical Industry
3.2 Applications and Uses in Biomedical Fields
4 Conclusion
References
13 An Insight into Pullulan and Its Potential Applications
1 Introduction
2 Physicochemical Properties of Pullulan
3 Fermentative Production of Pullulan
3.1 Microbial Sources of Pullulan
3.2 Mechanism of Pullulan Synthesis
3.3 Upstream and Downstream Processing for Pullulan
3.4 Factors Influencing Pullulan Production
3.4.1 Fermentation Media Supplements
Carbon Source
Nitrogen Source
Supplements
3.4.2 Fermentation Type
3.4.3 Bioreactor Configuration and Operation
3.4.4 Fermentation Time
3.4.5 Microbial Culture
3.4.6 Oxygen Intensity
3.4.7 pH
3.4.8 Temperature
4 Characterization of Pullulan
4.1 Structural Characterization
4.2 Molecular Weight
4.3 Thermal and Mechanical Properties
5 Surface Derivatization Approaches for Pullulan
5.1 Polyionic Derivatives
5.2 Cross-Linking
5.3 Hydrophobic Modification
5.4 Grafting
6 Recent Applications and Uses in Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Fields
6.1 Pharmaceutical Formulations
6.2 Tissue Engineering
6.3 Targeted Drug Delivery
6.4 Gene Delivery
7 Future Perspectives
8 Conclusion
References
14 Scleroglucan and Schizophyllan
1 Introduction
2 Structural Description
3 Physicochemical Aspects
3.1 Properties of Scleroglucan
3.1.1 Properties of Scleroglucan Aqueous Solutions
3.1.2 Rheological Properties of Scleroglucan
3.1.3 Physiological Properties of Scleroglucan
3.2 Properties of Schizophyllan
3.2.1 Properties of Dilute Schizophyllan Solutions
3.2.2 Behavior of Concentrated Schizophyllan Solutions
3.2.3 Gelation Behavior of Schizophyllan
4 Production and Isolation of Scleroglucan and Schizophyllan
4.1 Production and Isolation of Scleroglucan
4.1.1 Biosynthesis of Scleroglucan
4.1.2 Fermentation Conditions for Scleroglucan Production
4.1.3 Downstream Processing for Recovery of Scleroglucan
4.2 Production and Isolation of Schizophyllan
5 Applications for Scleroglucan and Schizophyllan
5.1 Applications in the Food Industry
5.1.1 As Stabilizers, Viscosifiers/Thickeners, and Gelling Agents
5.1.2 Preparation of Edible Films
5.1.3 Production of Functional Foods
5.2 Biomedical/Pharmaceutical Applications
5.2.1 As Immunostimulants in Anticancer Activities
5.2.2 As Immunomodulators in Antitumor Activities
5.2.3 As Antiviral and Antimicrobial Agents
5.2.4 Hypocholesterolemic and Hypoglycemic Effects
5.2.5 Excipients
5.2.6 As Carriers for Targeted Delivery of Drugs and Bioactive Compounds
6 Conclusion/Perspectives
References
15 Sulfated Seaweed Polysaccharides
1 Introduction
2 Sulfated Polysaccharides: Their Properties
2.1 Fucoidan
2.2 Carrageenan
2.3 Agar
2.4 Ulvan
3 Bioactive/Biological Properties of Sulfated Polysaccharides
3.1 Fucoidan
3.2 Carrageenan
3.3 Agar
3.4 Ulvan
4 Biomedical Application
4.1 Fucoidan
4.2 Carrageenan
4.3 Agar
4.4 Ulvan
5 Conclusions and Final Remarks
References
16 Polysaccharides Produced by Microalgae
1 Introduction
2 General Structures of Polysaccharides from Commercial Microalgae
3 Commercial Microalgae
3.1 Species
3.2 Spirulina
3.3 Chlorella
3.4 Nannochloropsis
3.5 Tetraselmis
3.6 Isochrysis
3.7 Thalassiosira
3.8 Dunaliella
3.9 Phaeodactylum
3.10 Porphyridium
3.11 Botryococcus
3.12 Chaetoceros
3.13 Chlamydomonas
3.14 Pavlova
3.15 Scenedesmus
3.16 Synechococcus
3.17 Conclusion
4 Conclusions
References
17 Microalgae Polysaccharides with Potential Biomedical Application
1 Introduction
2 Polysaccharides and Extracellular Polymeric Substances Founded in Microalgae
3 The Cultivation Conditions that Increase Polysaccharides or Extracellular Polymeric Substances Production in Microalgae
4 Extraction and Purification of Microalgae Polysaccharides or Extracellular Polymeric Substances
5 Uses of Polysaccharides or Extracellular Polymeric Substances from Microalgae in Biomedical Applications
5.1 Antitumoral
5.2 Antioxidant
5.3 Antiviral
5.4 Anti-Inflammatory
5.5 Other Activities
6 Final Considerations
References
18 Fungal Polysaccharide Production for Dermatological Purposes
1 Introduction
1.1 Fungal Conservation to Protect Species of Biotechnological Interest
1.1.1 Ecological Role and Human Interaction
1.1.2 Agaricus subrufescens, and Important Biotechnological Species
2 Laboratory Fungal Cultivation and Scale-Up
2.1 Biomass Production
2.2 Culture Media and Inoculation
2.3 Bioreactors for Submerged Cultivation of Basidiomycetes
2.4 Operation of Bioreactors for the Cultivation of Basidiomycetes
2.5 Mechanical Dispersion of Pellets During Cultivation
3 Bioactive Polysaccharides
3.1 Dermatological Activities
3.2 Cosmeceuticals
3.3 Dermatological Use of Agaricus subrufescens Polysaccharides
4 Conclusion
References
Part III: Isolation, Extraction, Purification, and Production Processes
19 Exopolysaccharides from Lactic Acid Bacteria
1 Introduction
2 Physiological Roles of Exopolysaccharides
3 Chemical Classification of Exopolysaccharides
4 Biosynthesis of EPS
4.1 The Extracellular Synthesis Pathway
4.1.1 Levan Biosynthesis
4.1.2 Dextran Biosynthesis
4.2 The Wzx/Wzy-Dependent Pathway
5 Production and Isolation of Exopolysaccharides
6 Chemical Characterization of Exopolysaccharides
7 Techno-Functional Properties of Exopolysaccharides
8 Biological Properties of Exopolysaccharides
9 Industrial Applications and Commercialization of Exopolysaccharides
10 Interactions Between EPS and Proteins
11 Conclusion
References
20 Isolation of Microbial Polysaccharides
1 Introduction
2 Physical Properties and Chemical Structure
3 Polysaccharides Screening Approaches
3.1 Screening Approaches for Solid Media
3.1.1 Detection of EPS-Producing Phenotypes
3.1.2 Agar-Plates with Dyes
3.2 Screening Approaches for Liquid Media
3.2.1 Precipitation
3.2.2 Viscosity
3.2.3 Specific Carbohydrate Screening
4 Extraction of Polysaccharides from Microorganisms
4.1 Extraction of Exopolysaccharides Existing as Slime
4.2 Extraction of Exopolysaccharide Existing as a Capsule
5 Precipitation of EPS
5.1 Precipitation Methods
6 Determination of Precipitation Yield
7 Purification of EPS
8 Conclusions
References
21 Biosynthesis of Bacterial Polysaccharides
1 Introduction
2 Wzx/Wzy-Dependent Pathway
2.1 O-Specific Polysaccharides
2.2 Capsular Polysaccharides
3 ABC Transporter-Dependent Pathways
3.1 O-Specific Polysaccharides
3.2 Capsular Polysaccharides
3.3 Other Glycopolymers
4 Synthase-Dependent Pathway
4.1 Exopolysaccharides
4.2 Capsular Polysaccharides
4.3 O-Specific Polysaccharides
5 Single Sucrase Pathway
6 Conclusions
References
Part IV: Polysaccharide properties, Functionalizations, and Modifications
22 Polysaccharides of Fungal Origin
1 Introduction: A History of C. neoformans
2 Comparison of Bacterial and Fungal Polysaccharide Synthesis, Transport, and Attachment
3 Current Understanding of Cryptococcal Polysaccharides
3.1 Biophysical Characterization
3.2 Structural Characterization
3.3 Immunological Characterization
4 Future Application and Technologies for the Study of Cryptococcal Polysaccharides
5 Conclusion
References
23 Bioactivities of Bacterial Polysaccharides
1 Introduction
2 Polysaccharide Structure
2.1 Polysaccharide Synthesis
2.2 EPS Activities and Uses
3 Antibacterial Activity of Bacterial Polysaccharides
4 Antiviral Activity of Bacterial Polysaccharides
5 Anticancer activity of Bacterial Polysaccharides
6 Other Bioactivities
6.1 Cholesterol-Lowering Effect
6.2 Antioxidant Effect
6.3 Immunomodulator Effect
7 Production and Extraction of Polysaccharides of Microbial Origin
8 Conclusion
References
24 Surface Properties of Polysaccharides
1 Introduction
2 Production, Extraction, and Purification/Isolation of Exopolysaccharides
3 Physicochemical Properties of Microbial Polysaccharides
3.1 Dextran
3.2 Xanthan
3.3 Gellan
3.4 Cellulose
3.5 Chitin and Chitosan
3.6 Curdlan
3.7 Alginate
3.8 Other Examples
4 Surface Modification and Functionalization of Microbial Polysaccharides
4.1 Copolymerization
4.2 Cross-Linking
4.2.1 Physical Cross-Linking
4.2.2 Chemical Cross-Linking
4.3 Functionalization
5 Applications of Microbial Polysaccharides
5.1 Environmental Applications
5.2 Biological and Pharmaceutical Applications
5.3 Tissue Engineering Applications
5.4 Food Applications
6 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives
References
25 Antioxidant and Antibacterial Activities of Polysaccharides
1 Introduction
2 Types of In Vitro Antioxidant Activity
3 Antioxidant Activity of Polysaccharides
4 Mechanism and Factors Affecting the Antioxidant Activity of Polysaccharide
5 Antibacterial Activity of Polysaccharides
6 Mechanism and Factors Affecting the Antibacterial Activity of Polysaccharides
7 Conclusion
References
26 Gel Properties of Microbial Polysaccharides
1 Introduction
2 Microbial Polysaccharides
3 Gels
4 Hydrogels
4.1 Classification of Hydrogels
5 Gel Properties of Microbial Polysaccharides
5.1 Conditions of Gel Formation
5.2 Physical Properties
5.3 Stability of Polysaccharide Gels
5.4 Biological Properties
5.5 Swelling Properties
5.6 Rheological Behavior
5.7 Structure
5.8 Syneresis
5.9 Aging
5.10 Common Microbial Polysaccharides and Their Gels
5.10.1 Xanthan Gum
5.10.2 Gellan Gum
5.10.3 Dextran
5.10.4 Hyaluronic Acid
5.10.5 Levan
5.10.6 Alginate
5.10.7 Curdlan
5.10.8 Pullulan
6 Conclusions
References
27 Polysaccharides in Bacterial Biofilm
1 Introduction
2 Polysaccharides in Oral Biofilms
2.1 Intracellular and Extracellular Polysaccharides
2.2 Understanding the Role of Sucrose in Oral Biofilms
3 Extracellular Polysaccharides in Oral Biofilms
3.1 Glucosyltransferase (GTF) and Fructosyltransferase (FTF): Genes and Enzymes
3.2 Glucosyltransferase (GTF) and Fructosyltransferase (FTF): Mechanism of Action
3.3 Types of Extracellular Polysaccharides (EPS): Insoluble and Soluble
3.3.1 Insoluble EPS
ฮฑ-(13) Glucan (Mutan)
3.3.2 Soluble EPS
ฮฑ-(16) Glucan (Dextran)
ฮฒ-(26) Fructan (Levan)
ฮฒ-(21) Fructan (Inulin)
4 Intracellular Polysaccharides (IPS)
4.1 IPS Metabolism
4.2 The Role of IPS and Its Importance in Oral Biofilms
5 Conclusion
References
28 Bioactive Polysaccharides from Microalgae
1 Introduction
2 Polysaccharides from Microalgae
2.1 Cyanophyta
2.2 Chlorophyta
2.3 Rhodophyta
2.4 Select Chromistan Algae
3 Conclusions
References
29 Polysaccharides of Biomedical Importance from Genetically Modified Microorganisms
1 Introduction
2 Types of Polysaccharides
2.1 Food Storage Polysaccharides
2.2 Structural Polysaccharides
2.3 Mucoid Polysaccharides
3 Naturally Occurring Polysaccharides
4 Microbial Polysaccharides
4.1 Bacterial Exopolysaccharides
4.1.1 Bacterial Polysaccharides Used for Industrial Applications
Xanthan Gums
Gellan Gum
Dextran
Cellulose
5 Synthetic Polysaccharides
6 Biological Macromolecules
7 Biomedicine
7.1 Proteins
7.2 Carbohydrates
7.3 Lipids
7.4 Nucleic Acids
7.5 Synthetic Macromolecules in Biomedicine
7.6 Synthetic Plastics
7.7 Polyurethane
7.8 Silicon Gels
8 Fungi as a Source of Macromolecules
9 Genetically Modified Organisms
10 Polysaccharides Produced by Genetically Modified Microorganisms
11 Bacteria as the Most Preferred Models
12 Polymers Produced Through Genetic Engineering Technologies
13 Risks Associated with Genetic Engineered Polymers
14 Why Genetic Engineering?
15 The Downstreaming Process, Easy or Hard?
16 Conclusion
References
30 Sulfation of Microbial Polysaccharides
1 Introduction
2 Sulfation Reactions
2.1 Modification Reactions
2.2 Reaction of Sulfation
2.3 Tools to Support the Study of New and Modified Polysaccharides
3 Final Remarks
References
Part V: Pharmaceutical Applications
31 Dextran Pharmaceutical Applications
1 Introduction
2 Origin of Dextran
3 Structure and Physicochemical Properties
4 Reactivity
5 Pharmacokinetic Fate
6 Dextran Conjugates
6.1 Irreversible Dextran Conjugates
6.1.1 Dextran Enzyme Conjugates
6.1.2 Dextran Small-Molecule Complexes
6.1.3 Dextran Metal Complexes
6.2 Reversible Dextran Conjugates/Prodrugs
7 Modes of Covalent Drug Attachment to Dextran
7.1 Dextran Conjugates for Lowering Ulcerogenicity of Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs
7.2 Dextran Prodrugs for Enhancement of Water Solubility
7.3 Dextran Prodrugs in Colon-Specific Delivery
7.4 Liver-Specific Drugs Using Dextran as a Carrier
7.5 Anticancer Dextran-Drug Conjugates
8 Drug Delivery Systems of Dextran Conjugates
8.1 Lymphocytokinin-Dextran Conjugate
8.2 Dextran-Magnetic Layered Composite Hydroxide Fluorouracil Targeting Lipid
8.3 Dextran Hydrogels
8.4 Bioadhesive Oral Delivery Systems of Dextran
8.5 Conjugates of Dextran in Production of Micelles
8.6 Functionalized Dextran Aldehyde-Drug Conjugate
9 Common Methods for Synthesis of Dextran Conjugates
9.1 Direct Esterification
9.2 Carbonyldiimidazole Activation Method
9.3 Carbonate or Carbamate Ester Method
9.4 Periodate Oxidation Method
9.5 Cyanogens Bromide Activation Method
9.6 Etherification of Dextran
10 Applications of Dextran and Its Derivatives
10.1 Medical Uses
10.1.1 Antithrombotic Effect
10.1.2 Usage in Intravenous Fluids
10.1.3 DNA Transfection
10.1.4 Iron Dextran
10.1.5 Hysteroscopy
10.1.6 Antimicrobial Activity
10.1.7 Anticoagulant Activity
10.1.8 Volume Expansion
10.1.9 Antioxidant Properties and Immunomodulatory Potential
10.1.10 Acute Dengue Infection
10.1.11 Dextran-Based Hydrogels as Drug Delivery Systems
10.1.12 Tissue Engineering
10.2 In Food Industry
10.2.1 Bakery Products
10.2.2 Confectionery
10.2.3 Ice Cream
10.2.4 Frozen and Dried Foods
10.2.5 Fermented Dairy Products
10.2.6 Reduced-Fat Cheese
10.2.7 Prebiotics
10.3 In Photographic Industry
10.4 In the Field of Cosmetics
10.5 Waste Water Management
10.6 Laboratory Uses
11 Toxic Effects of Dextran Sulphate
11.1 Alopecia
11.2 Changes in Nails
11.3 Diarrhoea
11.4 Reduction in Platelets
11.5 Hydrocephalus
12 Conclusion
References
32 Polysaccharides in Cancer Therapy
1 Introduction
2 Tiny Tale of Cancer Metastasis
3 Polysaccharides: Properties, Modifications, and Anticancerous Mechanisms
3.1 Relation Between Structure and Anticancer Potentiality of Polysaccharides
3.1.1 Molecular Weight and Solubility
3.1.2 Bands and Branching
3.1.3 3D Arrangement
3.1.4 Composition
3.2 Chemical Modifications
3.3 Anticancer Mechanisms of Polysaccharides
3.3.1 Polysaccharides Involve in Cell Cycle Arrest
3.3.2 Antioxidant Activity
3.3.3 Mitochondrial Dysfunction
3.3.4 Immunomodulation
3.3.5 Antiangiogenesis
4 Polysaccharides in Cancer Therapy
4.1 Anticancerous Polysaccharides in Clinical Trial
4.2 Polysaccharide-Based Prodrugs
4.3 Immune-Therapy with Polysaccharide-Based Vaccine
4.4 Iminosugars for Cancer Therapy
4.5 Polysaccharide-Based Cancer Diagnostics
5 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspective
References
33 Marine Polysaccharides in Pharmaceutical Uses
1 Introduction
2 Marine-Derived Assorted Polysaccharides
3 Marine Biomass: A Great Resource for Many Polysaccharides
4 Principals of Physicochemical Modification in Biopolymeric Milieu
5 Patents on Marine-Based Polysaccharides
6 Production, Applications, and Modification Approaches for Marine Polysaccharide
7 Biotechnology for Marine-Based Biomolecules
8 Compact Thrust into Marine Biotechnology Industry
9 Marine Polysaccharide-Based Hydrogels
10 Marine-Derived Polysaccharides for Bio-Adhesives and Muco-Adhesives
11 Tactical Modifications in Marine-Based Polysaccharides
11.1 Blending Actions
11.2 Physicochemical Alteration
11.3 Hydrophobic Modification
11.4 Depolymerization
11.5 Sulfation
12 Pharmaceutically Vital Polysaccharides
12.1 Alginate: (C6H9O7-)n
12.1.1 Structural Features
12.1.2 History and Chemistry
12.1.3 Property
12.1.4 Utility of Alginates
Drug Delivery by Alginates
Wound Healing with Alginates
Cell Immobilization Via Alginates
12.2 Chitin: (C8H13O5N)n
12.2.1 Structural Features
12.2.2 History and Chemistry
12.2.3 Occurrence and Properties
12.2.4 Chitin/Chitosan Synthesis
12.2.5 Solubility Pattern
12.2.6 Utility of Chitin/Chitosan
12.2.7 Chitosan in Biomedicals
12.3 Carrageenan: C42H74O46S6
12.3.1 Structural Features
12.3.2 History, Chemistry
12.3.3 Property
12.3.4 Utility of Carrageenan
13 Conclusion
References
34 Bacterial Polysaccharides: Cosmetic Applications
1 Introduction
2 Bacterial Polysaccharides
2.1 Main Properties
2.2 Biotechnological Importance
2.2.1 Applications of Bacterial Polysaccharides in the Food Sector
2.2.2 Applications of Bacterial Polysaccharides in the Health Sector
2.2.3 Applications of Bacterial Polysaccharides in the Agricultural Sector
2.2.4 Applications of Bacterial Polysaccharides in the Industrial Sector
2.3 Cosmetic Applications of Bacterial Polysaccharides
2.3.1 Functional Polysaccharides
Cationic Polysaccharides
Anionic Polysaccharides
Nonionic Polysaccharides
Amphoteric Polysaccharide
2.3.2 Bioactive Bacterial Polysaccharides
Bacterial Cellulose
Levan
Hyaluronic Acid
3 Skincare
3.1 Skin Structure
3.2 Skin Conditions
3.2.1 Psoriasis
3.2.2 Eczema
3.2.3 Acne
3.2.4 Rosacea
3.2.5 Hyperpigmentation and Skin Aging
4 Cosmetic Products
4.1 Definition and Categories of Cosmetics Products
4.2 Cosmetic Formulation
4.3 Main Cosmetic Vehicles
4.3.1 Emulsions
4.3.2 Suspensions
4.3.3 Hydrogels
4.3.4 Encapsulating Structures
4.4 Safety Requirements and Regulation
4.4.1 The Requirements of the EU Regulation
4.4.2 The Requirements of the United States
Cosmetic Ingredient Review (CIR) and Good Clinical Practices (GCPs)
5 Conclusions
References
35 Natural Polysaccharides for Skin Care
1 Introduction
2 The Specialty Bacterial Polysaccharides for Skin Care Cosmetics
2.1 Cellulose
2.1.1 Methylcellulose
2.1.2 Hydroxyethyl Cellulose
2.1.3 Hydroxypropyl Cellulose
2.2 Chitin and Chitosan
2.3 Hyaluronic Acid
2.4 Xanthan
2.5 Dextran
2.6 Curdlan
2.7 Gellan
2.8 Levan
2.9 Alginate
3 The Specialty Fungal Polysaccharides for Skin Care Cosmetics
3.1 Pullulan
3.2 Lentinus edodes
3.3 Ganoderma lucidum
3.4 Agaricus subrufescens
3.5 Grifola frondosa
3.6 Trametes versicolor
3.7 Pleurotus ostreatus
3.8 Poria cocos
4 Challenges and Future Prospects of Microbial Polysaccharides for Cosmetics
4.1 Biodegradable Material for Packaging
4.2 Delivery System
4.3 Source and Production
5 Conclusions
References
36 Immunogenicity and Vaccines of Polysaccharides
1 Gums/Polymers from Phytogenic Origin Used for Vaccine Delivery
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Plant Gums
2 Mucosal Adjuvants
2.1 Living Antigens
2.2 Adjuvants of Phytogenic Origin
2.3 Gums and Mucilages: Salient Features
2.4 Characterization of Gums and Mucilages from Excipient Analysis
2.4.1 Classification of Gums
2.5 Gums as Delayed Transit and Continuous Release Systems
2.6 Attempts at Use of Plant Polysaccharide for Vaccine Delivery
3 Conclusions
References
37 Bacterial Polysaccharides Versatile Medical Uses
1 New Developments of Well-Known, Commercial Bacterial Polysaccharides
1.1 Dextran
1.1.1 Dextran Derivatives as Drug Carriers
1.1.2 Dextran Derivatives in Systems for Topical Therapeutics
1.1.3 Dextran Derivatives in Gene and Cell Delivery
1.1.4 Dextran in Other Medical Applications
1.2 Hyaluronic Acid
1.2.1 Hyaluronic Acid in Wound Healing
1.2.2 Hyaluronic Acid in Drug and Gene Therapy
1.2.3 Hyaluronic Derivatives in Tissue Engineering
1.3 Xanthan
1.3.1 Xanthan as Drug Carrier
1.3.2 Xanthan in Tissue Engineering and Wound Healing
1.4 Gellan
1.4.1 Gellan Developments as Drug Carriers
1.4.2 Gellan in Wound Healing and Tissue Engineering
1.5 Bacterial Cellulose
1.5.1 Bacterial Cellulose Developments in Wound Healing with Antimicrobials Delivery and Tissue Engineering
1.5.2 Bacterial Cellulose in Drug Delivery
1.6 Levan
1.6.1 Biological Activities of Levan for Health
1.6.2 Levan in Tissue Engineering
1.6.3 Levan as Drug Carrier
2 New Discovered Bacterial Polysaccharides with Potential Medical Applications
3 Conclusions and Perspectives
References
38 Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Potential of Sulphated Polysaccharides from Algae
1 Introduction
2 Structural Characteristics of Sulphated Polysaccharides Produced by Algae
2.1 Macroalgae/Seaweed
2.1.1 Freshwater Algae (Macroalgae)
2.1.2 Marine Algae (Macroalgae)
2.2 Microalgae and Cyanobacteria
2.2.1 Freshwater Microalgae
2.2.2 Marine Microalgae
2.2.3 Cyanobacteria (Blue-Green Algae)
2.3 Other Sulphated Polysaccharides Produced by Animals, Plants, or Other Microorganisms
3 Bioactivity of Sulphated Polysaccharides from Algae. Relation with Chemical Features of Their Structures and Mechanisms of A...
3.1 Polysaccharides from Marine Algae
3.1.1 Green Algae Versus Red Algae
3.2 Bioactivities of Sulphated Polysaccharides from Algae
3.2.1 Antiviral, Antibacterial, and Antifungal Activities
3.2.2 Antiproliferative, Tumor Suppressor, Apoptotic, and Cytotoxicity Activities
3.2.3 Anticoagulant and Antithrombotic Activities
3.2.4 Antilipidemic Activities
3.2.5 Anti-Inflammatory and Immunomodulatory Activities
3.2.6 Antioxidant Activities and Sequestration of Free Radicals
Antiaging Activity
3.2.7 Other Biological Activities
3.3 Case Study: Atherosclerosis
4 Potential Medical/Biomedical Applications of Sulphated Polysaccharides from Marine Algae
4.1 Tissue Engineering
4.2 Drug Delivery
4.3 Anticancer Agents
4.4 Immune Function
4.5 Wound Healing
4.6 Antipathogenic and Anti-Inflammatory
5 Clinical Trials
6 Conclusions
References
39 Natural Polymers for Biophotonic Use
1 Introduction
2 Applications of Biophotonics
2.1 Photoacoustic Imaging
2.2 Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy
2.3 Optical Coherence Tomography
2.4 Photodynamic Therapy (PDT)
2.5 Photothermal Therapy
3 Natural Polymers in Biophotonics - Current Uses and Applications
3.1 Chitosan
3.2 Cellulose
3.3 Keratin
3.4 Silk
3.5 Agarose
4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
Part VI: Tissue Engineering Applications
40 Polysaccharides-Based Biomaterials for Surgical Applications
1 Introduction
2 Polysaccharides
2.1 Plant-Origin Polysaccharides
2.2 Animal-Origin Polysaccharides
2.3 Microbe-Origin Polysaccharides
3 Processing and Modifications of Polysaccharides
3.1 Bacterial Cellulose
3.2 Dextran
3.3 Gellan Gum
3.4 Carrageenan
3.5 Pullulan
3.6 Xanthan Gum
3.7 Glucan
4 Surgical Applications of Polysaccharides
4.1 Orthopedic Surgery
4.2 Neural Surgery and Plastic Surgery
4.3 Wound Healing and Miscellaneous Applications
5 Conclusions
References
41 Kefiran in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
1 Introduction
2 Kefiran Potential for TERM Applications
3 Kefiran Physicochemical and Biological Properties of Interest for TERM Applications
3.1 Kefiran Structural Properties
3.2 Kefiran Molecular Weight
3.3 Kefiran Thermal Properties
3.4 Kefiran Mechanical Properties
3.5 Kefiran Biological Characterization
4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
42 Gums for Tissue Engineering Applications
1 Introduction
2 Natural Gums
2.1 Classification of Natural Gums
2.1.1 Gum Arabica
2.1.2 Gum Ghatti
2.1.3 Karaya Gum
2.1.4 Gum Tragacanth
2.1.5 Guar Gum
2.1.6 Pectin
2.1.7 Acemannan
2.1.8 Konjac Glucomannan
2.1.9 Xylan
2.1.10 Cellulose
2.1.11 Chitin
2.1.12 Chitosan
2.1.13 Chondroitin Sulfate
2.1.14 Hyaluronic Acid
2.1.15 Xanthan Gum
2.1.16 Gellan Gum
2.1.17 Dextran
2.1.18 Scleroglucan
2.1.19 Pullulan
2.1.20 Alginate
2.1.21 Agar
2.1.22 Agarose
2.1.23 Carrageenan
2.1.24 Ulvan
2.1.25 Fucoidan
2.1.26 Laminarin
2.1.27 Carboxymethyl Cellulose
3 Conclusion
References
43 Microbial Polysaccharides as Cell/Drug Delivery Systems
1 Introduction
2 Polysaccharides
2.1 Microbial Polysaccharides
2.2 Fungal Polysaccharide
2.3 Cellulose
2.4 Xanthan Gum
3 Cell Delivery
3.1 Dextran
3.2 Dextran-Based Cryogels
3.3 Dextran-Based Colon Cancer Therapy
3.4 Hydrogels
3.5 Gellan Gum
3.6 Salecan
3.7 Heparosan Polysaccharide
3.8 Pullulan
3.9 Schizophyllan
3.10 Curdlan
4 Conclusion
References
44 Injectable Polymeric System Based on Polysaccharides for Therapy
1 Introduction
2 Injectable Polymeric Systems
3 Applications of Injectable Materials Based on Microbial Polysaccharides
3.1 Drug and Cell Delivery
3.2 Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
4 Conclusion and Outlook
References
45 The Role of Hyaluronic Acid in Tissue Engineering
1 Introduction
1.1 Tissue Scaffolds
1.2 The Extracellular Matrix (ECM)
2 Degradation and Chemical Modifications of HA
2.1 Conjugation of HA: Chemical Modifications Through the Carboxylic Acid Group
2.1.1 Amidation
2.1.2 Ugi Condensation
2.1.3 Ester Formation
2.2 Chemical Modifications Through the Hydroxyl Group
2.2.1 Ether Formation
2.2.2 Ester Formation
2.3 Modification of the -NHCOCH3
2.4 Other HA-Crosslinking Strategies for Biomedical Applications
3 Potential HA-Based Scaffold-Processing Methods
3.1 Phase Separation
3.2 Supercritical Fluid Technology
3.3 Porogen Leaching
3.4 Electrospinning
3.5 Freeze Drying
3.6 Centrifugal Casting
3.7 Scaffold-Templating Techniques
3.8 Micropatterning Techniques
3.9 Rapid Prototyping: Solid Freeform Fabrication (SFF) and Bioprinting
4 HA in Scaffold Vascularization Strategies
5 Immunomodulatory Properties of HA-Based Scaffolds
6 HA in Tissue-Engineering Applications
6.1 Peripheral Nerve Regeneration (PNS)
6.2 Central Nervous System (CNS)
6.3 Skin
7 Antimicrobial Properties of HA for Tissue-Engineering Strategies
7.1 Antibacterial Activity of HA
7.2 Antifungal Activity of HA
7.3 Antiviral Activity of HA
7.3.1 Highlight on COVID-19 and Other SARS
8 Conclusions and Future Outlook
References
46 Natural Polysaccharides on Wound Healing
1 Introduction
2 Extracellular Matrix and Wound
2.1 Extracellular Matrix
2.2 Wound Formation: Acute and Chronic Wound
3 Wound Healing
3.1 Hemostasis
3.2 Inflammation
3.3 Proliferation
3.4 Maturation and Restructuring
4 The Role of Extracellular Matrix in Wound Healing
5 Uses of Natural Polymers in Wound Healing
5.1 Drawbacks
6 In Vivo and In Vitro Studies
7 Conclusion
References
47 Xanthan Gum for Regenerative Medicine
1 Introduction
2 Xanthan Gum Production
3 Properties of Xanthan Gum
4 Modification of Xanthan Gum
4.1 Physical Methods
4.2 Chemical Methods
4.3 Enzymatic Treatment and Plasma Irradiation
5 Application of Xanthan Gum in Regenerative Medicine
5.1 Skin
5.2 Articular Cartilage
5.3 Tendons
5.4 Neuronal Tissue
5.5 Bone and Periosteal Tissue
5.6 Periodontal Tissue
5.7 Delivery of Bioactive Agents
5.8 Other Applications
6 Conclusions
References
48 Cellulose and Tissue Engineering
1 Tissue Engineering: Definition and Requirements
2 Cellulose: Function, Structure, and Properties
3 Cellulose: Derivatives and Cellulose Nanostructures
4 Cellulose Applied to Bone Tissue Engineering
5 Cellulose Applied to Cartilage Tissue Engineering
6 Cellulose for Skin Tissue Engineering and Wound Healing
7 Conclusions, Future Directions, and Challenges
References
49 Glycoconjugate for Tissue Engineering
1 Introduction
2 Glycoconjugate: Definition, Structure, and Type
2.1 Glycoprotein
2.2 Glycolipids
3 Glycan-Based Polymer
3.1 Nature Glycopolymers
3.1.1 Chitin/Chitosan
3.1.2 Glycosaminoglycans
3.1.3 Agarosa
3.1.4 Gelatin
3.2 Synthetic Polymer
3.2.1 Polyethylene Glycol (PEG)
3.2.2 Polycaprolactone (PCL)
3.2.3 Polylactic Acid (PLA)
3.2.4 Poly Lactic-Co-Glycolic Acid (PLGA)
3.3 Natural, Synthetic, Natural-Synthetic Polymer Blends
4 Glycoconjugate and Scaffolding Material in Tissue Engineering
5 Scaffolds Based on Extracellular Matrix Promote Neural Tissue Regeneration
6 Glycopolimer on Cancer Immunotherapy
7 Conclusion and Outlook
References
50 3D Printing of Microbial Polysaccharides
1 Introduction
2 3D Printing Technologies
2.1 Concept and Definition
2.2 Main Applications in Food and Regenerative Medicine
3 Description of the Main Microbial Polysaccharides
3.1 Polysaccharides Definition
3.2 Bacterial Cellulose
3.3 Xanthan
3.4 Gellan
3.5 Alginate
3.6 Dextran
3.7 Others Bacterial Polysaccharides
4 Use of Polysaccharides As Bioink
4.1 Cellulose Applications
4.2 Alginate Applications
4.3 Other Examples
5 Conclusion
References
51 Chitosan-Based Gels for Regenerative Medicine Applications
1 Introduction
2 Mechanism of Chitosan Gelation
2.1 Physical Gelation
2.2 Self-Assembly
2.3 Radical Polymerization
2.4 Ionic Gelation
2.5 Coacervation
2.5.1 Simple Coacervation
2.5.2 Complex Coacervation
2.6 Cryogelation
3 Application of Chitosan Gel
3.1 Chitosan Nanogels
3.2 Chitosan Microgel
3.3 Chitosan Macrogel
4 Conclusion
References
Index