Modern Environmental Analysis Techniques for Pollutants
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Modern Environmental Analysis Techniques for Pollutants
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1 Environmental pollution and environmental analysis
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Emerging pollutants
1.2.1 Persistent organic pollutants
1.2.1.1 Main sources of persistent organic pollutants
1.2.1.2 Categorization of persistent organic pollutants
1.2.1.3 Impacts of persistent organic pollutants on environment and human health
1.2.2 Nanomaterials pollutants
1.2.3 Microplastics
1.2.4 Heavy metal pollutants
1.2.4.1 Lead
1.2.4.2 Mercury
1.2.4.3 Cadmium
1.2.4.4 Chromium
1.2.4.5 Arsenic
1.2.5 Radioactive pollutants
1.2.6 Dye pollutants
1.3 Sources and transport of pollutants
1.4 Risk assessment and exposure of pollutants
1.4.1 The identification of potential hazard
1.4.2 The assessment of dose–response
1.4.3 The assessment of exposure
1.4.4 The characterization of potential risk
1.5 Role of environmental analysis in environmental pollution
1.6 Conclusions
References
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2 Historical backgrounds of environmental analysis
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Historical backgrounds of sample preparation techniques
2.3 Historical backgrounds of chromatographic techniques
2.4 Historical backgrounds of spectroscopic techniques
2.5 Conclusions
References
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3 Dimensions and measurement of environmental analysis
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Units of measurement and basic conversions
3.3 Figures of merit
3.3.1 Linearity
3.3.2 Accuracy
3.3.3 Sensitivity
3.3.4 Selectivity
3.3.5 The limit of detection and limit of quantification
3.3.6 Reproducibility and repeatability
3.3.7 Robustness
3.4 Chemometrics in environmental analysis
3.4.1 Multivariate calibration techniques
3.4.1.1 Principal component analysis
3.4.1.2 Partial least squares analysis
3.4.1.3 Classical least squares analysis
3.4.1.4 Inverse least squares analysis
3.5 Conclusion
References
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4 Sampling and Sample preparation techniques for environmental analysis
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Sampling techniques for environmental pollutants
4.2.1 Air sampling
4.2.2 Water sampling
4.2.3 Soil sampling
4.3 Sample preparation techniques for environmental analysis
4.3.1 Solid-phase extraction
4.3.1.1 Conditioning step
4.3.1.2 Sample loading step
4.3.1.3 Washing step
4.3.1.4 Elution step
4.3.2 Online solid-phase extraction
4.3.3 Solid-phase microextraction
4.3.4 Dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction
4.3.5 Cloud point extraction
4.4 Emerging trends in sample preparation techniques
4.4.1 Molecularly imprinted materials
4.4.2 Nanomaterials-based membranes
4.4.3 Magnetic nanoparticles
4.5 Conclusion
References
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5 Wet chemical techniques in environmental analysis
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Methods in wet chemical techniques
5.2.1 Qualitative methods
5.2.1.1 Flame test
5.2.1.2 Spot tests
5.2.2 Quantitative methods
5.2.2.1 Gravimetric analysis
5.2.2.2 Volumetric analysis
5.3 Conclusions
References
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6 Spectroscopic techniques for environmental analysis
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Spectroscopic techniques for environmental analysis
6.2.1 Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy
6.2.2 Fluorescence spectroscopy
6.2.3 Infrared spectroscopy
6.2.4 Raman spectroscopy
6.2.5 Atomic absorption spectroscopy
6.3 Conclusion
References
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7 Separation techniques for environmental analysis
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Main principles of chromatography
7.2.1 Internal standard technique
7.2.2 External standard technique
7.3 Gas chromatography
7.3.1 Carrier gas
7.3.2 Injection systems
7.3.3 Gas chromatography columns
7.3.3.1 Packed columns
7.3.3.2 Capillary columns
7.3.3.2.1 Porous layer open-tubular columns
7.3.3.2.2 Wall-coated open-tubular columns
7.3.3.2.3 Support-coated open-tubular columns
7.3.3.2.4 Fused silica-based open-tubular columns
7.3.4 Column temperature
7.3.5 Detectors
7.3.5.1 Flame ionization detector
7.3.5.2 Thermal conductivity detector
7.3.5.3 Electron capture detector
7.3.5.4 Photoionization detector
7.3.5.5 Electrolytic conductivity detector
7.3.5.6 Flame photometric detector
7.3.5.7 Nitrogen–phosphorous (thermionic selective) detector
7.3.5.8 Mass selective detector
7.4 High-performance liquid chromatography
7.4.1 Solvent delivery system
7.4.2 Injection system
7.4.3 High-performance liquid chromatography columns
7.4.3.1 Analytical columns
7.4.3.2 Guard columns
7.4.4 High-performance liquid chromatography detectors
7.4.4.1 Ultraviolet and photodiode array detectors
7.4.4.2 Refractive index detectors
7.4.4.3 Fluorescence detectors
7.4.4.4 Mass detectors
7.4.4.5 Evaporative light scattering detectors
7.4.5 Normal-phase liquid chromatography
7.4.6 Reversed-phase liquid chromatography
7.5 Ion chromatography
7.6 Supercritical fluid chromatography
7.7 Size-exclusion chromatography
7.8 Applications of chromatography in environmental analysis
7.9 Conclusion
References
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8 Electrochemical techniques for environmental analysis
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Electrochemical techniques for environmental analysis
8.2.1 Amperometric sensors for environmental analysis
8.2.2 Voltammetric sensors for environmental analysis
8.2.3 Conductometric sensors for environmental analysis
8.3 Conclusions
References
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9 Emerging techniques for environmental analysis
9.1 Introduction
9.2 From traditional to miniaturized analytical systems: lab-on-a-chip platforms
9.2.1 Design and fabrication of lab-on-a-chip platforms
9.2.2 Lab-on-a-chip platforms for environmental analysis
9.3 Surface-enhanced Raman Scattering technique for environmental analysis
9.4 Conclusion
References
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10 Analysis of environmental samples
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Sensor platforms for pollutants in environmental samples
10.2.1 Spectroscopic sensors for environmental pollutants
10.2.2 Piezoelectric sensors for environmental pollutants
10.2.3 Electrochemical sensors for environmental pollutants
10.3 Conclusion
References
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11 Use of nanomaterials for environmental analysis
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Carbon-based nanomaterials
11.3 Molecularly imprinted nanoparticles
11.4 Metal nanoparticles
11.5 Metal oxide nanoparticles
11.6 Nanomaterial-based membranes
11.6.1 Traditional membranes
11.6.2 Carbon nanomaterial–based membranes
11.6.2.1 Graphene-based membranes
11.6.2.2 Carbon nanotubes–based membranes
11.6.2.3 Fullerene-based membranes
11.6.3 Nanoparticles-based membranes
11.6.4 Molecularly imprinted polymer–based membranes
11.7 Miniaturization of analytical sciences based on nanotechnology
11.8 The drawbacks and technical challenges of nanotechnology in environmental analysis
11.9 Conclusion
References
Further reading
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12 Quality assurance and control for environmental analysis
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Quality assurance for environmental analysis
12.3 Quality assessment and quality control
12.4 International standardization of methodologies
12.5 Quality systems for the processes of environmental analysis
12.5.1 Quality assurance in the design of environmental analysis programs
12.5.2 Quality assurance in the planning of environmental study
12.5.3 Quality assurance for standard operating procedures
12.5.4 Quality assurance for the preparation prior to the sampling
12.5.5 Quality assurance for field liaison and training activities
12.5.6 Quality assurance in the collection of environmental samples
12.5.7 Quality assurance in the handling of environmental samples
12.5.8 Quality assurance in the analysis of environmental samples
12.5.9 Quality assurance in the transmission of the achieved results
12.5.10 Quality assurance in the validation of the achieved results
12.5.11 Quality assurance in the approval of the achieved results
12.5.12 Quality assurance in the provision of the achieved results
12.5.13 Quality assurance in the statistical analysis of the achieved results
12.5.14 Quality assurance in the reporting of the achieved results
12.6 Conclusions
References
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13 Sustainable development and environmental analysis
13.1 Introduction
13.1.1 Green chemistry
13.1.2 Green analytical chemistry
13.2 Green sample preparation techniques in environmental analysis
13.2.1 Solid-phase microextraction
13.2.2 Dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction
13.2.3 Online solid-phase extraction
13.2.4 Stir bar sorptive extraction
13.2.5 Cloud point extraction
13.3 Green analytical techniques for the detection of environmental pollutants
13.3.1 Green aspects of gas chromatography in environmental analysis
13.3.2 Green aspects of high-performance liquid chromatography in environmental analysis
13.3.3 Green aspects of supercritical fluid chromatography
13.4 Conclusion
References
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14 Future of environmental analysis
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Environmental pollutants and ecosystems
14.3 Public health and environmental pollutants
14.3.1 The effects of air pollutants on respiratory system
14.3.2 The effects of air pollutants on cardiovascular system
14.3.3 The effects of air pollutants on nervous system
14.3.4 The effects of air pollutants on urinary system
14.4 Analytical approaches for the environmental analysis, new trends, and future directions
14.5 Conclusions
References
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Index