Abstract
Hyperglycemia and elevation of methylglyoxal (MG) are symptoms of diabetes mellitus (DM). We previously showed that high glucose (HG; 30 mM) or MG (50–400 µM) could induce apoptosis in mammalian cells, but these doses are higher than the physiological concentrations of glucose and MG in the plasma of DM patients. The physiological concentration of MG and glucose in the normal blood circulation is about 1 µM and 5 mM, respectively. Here, we show that co‐treatment with concentrations of MG and glucose comparable to those seen in the blood circulation of DM patients (5 µM and 15–30 mM, respectively) could cause cell apoptosis or necrosis in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) in vitro. HG/MG co‐treatment directly increased the reactive oxygen species (ROS) content in HUVECs, leading to increases in intracellular ATP levels, which can control cell death through apoptosis or necrosis. Co‐treatment of HUVECs with 5 µM MG and 20 mM glucose significantly increased cytoplasmic free calcium levels, activation of nitric oxide synthase (NOS), caspase‐3 and ‐9, cytochrome c release, and apoptotic cell death. In contrast, these apoptotic biochemical changes were not detected in HUVECs treated with 5 µM MG and 30 mM glucose, which appeared to undergo necrosis. Pretreatment with nitric oxide (NO) scavengers could inhibit 5 µM MG/20 mM glucose‐induced cytochrome c release, decrease activation of caspase‐9 and caspase‐3, and increase the gene expression and protein levels of p53 and p21, which are known to be involved in apoptotic signaling. Inhibition of p53 protein expression using small interfering RNA (siRNA) blocked the activation of p21 and the cell apoptosis induced by 5 µM MG/20 mM glucose. In contrast, inhibition of p21 protein expression by siRNA prevented apoptosis in HUVECs but had no effect on p53 expression. These results collectively suggest that the treatment dosage of MG and glucose could determine the mode of cell death (apoptosis vs. necrosis) in HUVECs, and both ROS and NO played important roles in MG/HG‐induced apoptosis of these cells. J. Cell. Biochem. 103: 1144–1157, 2008. © 2007 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.