Preface
Contents
Editors and Contributors
1: Mangroves: Types and Importance
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Types of Mangroves
1.3 Mangrove Ecosystem Services
1.3.1 Protecting from Intense Sunlight and UV-Radiation
1.3.2 Reducing `Greenhouse GasΒ΄ and Carbon Sequestration
1.3.3 Protecting from Cyclone and Storms
1.3.4 Protecting from Giant Waves
1.3.5 Controlling Flood Damage
1.3.6 Preventing Coastal Soil Erosion
1.3.7 Trapping Coastal Sediments
1.3.8 Deepening of Creeks
1.3.9 Trapping and Recycling of Nutrients
1.3.10 Litter Decomposition and Nutrient Enrichment
1.3.11 Supporting Fishes and Wildlife
1.3.12 Supporting Coastal Food Web
1.3.13 Protecting Other Coastal Systems
1.4 Uses of Mangroves
1.4.1 Firewood and Wood Products
1.4.2 Honey Collection
1.4.3 Mangrove Foliage as Fodder
1.4.4 Fisheries and Livelihood
1.4.5 Eco-tourism Development
1.4.6 Environmental Risk Reduction
1.4.7 Traditional Medicinal Value
1.4.8 Herbal Tea from Mangroves
1.4.9 Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Activities
1.4.10 Anticancer Activity of Mangroves
1.4.11 Anti-Viral Activities
1.4.12 Anti-Diabetic Activity
1.4.13 Anticoagulant Activity of Mangroves
1.4.14 Neuro-Protective Activity
1.4.15 Bioactive Nanoparticle Synthesis
1.4.16 Mosquito Repellents and Larvicides
1.4.17 Lead Molecules for Drug Development
1.4.18 Valuable Genes from Mangroves
1.5 Concluding Remarks
References
2: Biogeography of the Mangrove Ecosystem: Floristics, Population Structure, and Conservation Strategies
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Mangrove Floristics of the World and Distribution Pattern
2.3 Phylogeography of Extant Mangrove Species
2.4 Origin and Diversification of Mangroves Based on the West Tethyan Hotspot
2.4.1 Founder Effect Speciation- Causes for Genotypically and Phenotypically Distinct AEP Population
2.4.2 Indian Subcontinent View of Diversification of IWP Mangroves
2.5 Conservation and Management
References
3: Mangroves as Feeding and Breeding Grounds
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Mangroves, a Habitat for Fauna
3.2.1 Canopy
3.2.2 Trunks and Branches
3.2.3 Roots
3.2.4 Sediments
3.2.5 The Aquatic Environment
3.3 Mangrove as Food Resources
3.3.1 Primary Production
3.3.2 Detritus
3.3.3 Secondary Production
3.4 Fauna Diversity and Habitat Utilization
3.4.1 Terrestrial Invertebrates
3.4.2 Aquatic Invertebrates
3.4.3 Amphibians
3.4.4 Reptiles
3.4.5 Mammals
3.4.6 Birds
3.4.7 Fish
References
4: Factors Influencing Mangrove Ecosystems
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Climate: Temperature and Rainfall
4.3 Ocean Currents and Land Barriers
4.4 Coastal Typology Factors
4.5 Tidal Range and Inundation Regimes
4.6 Wave Action
4.7 Tipping Points
4.8 Conclusions
References
5: Energy Flux in Mangrove Ecosystems
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Energy Fluxes Within and Over Mangroves
5.3 Short-wave Radiation and Long-wave Radiation
5.4 Energy Balance
5.5 Photosynthesis in Mangroves
5.6 Mangrove Respiration
5.7 Consumers in Mangrove Ecosystems
5.8 Decomposer of Mangrove Ecosystems
5.9 Conclusions
References
6: Nitrogen and Phosphorus Budget in Mangrove Ecosystem
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Mangroves High Productivity in Low-Nutrient Environment
6.2.1 Implication of C:N:P
6.2.2 Transfer and Conservation of N, P
6.3 Mangroves as Source or Sink of Nutrient
6.4 Mangrove N Cycle
6.4.1 Nitrogen Stock in Biomass and Sediment
6.4.2 Nitrogen Transformation Processes and Fluxes
6.4.2.1 Nitrogen Fixation
6.4.2.2 Nitrogen Mineralization
6.4.2.3 Nitrogen Removal
6.4.3 Mangrove N Budget
6.5 Mangrove P Cycle
6.5.1 Storage and Bioavailability of Phosphorus
6.5.2 Input and Output of Phosphorus
6.5.3 Mangrove P Budget
6.6 Nutrient Budget in the Sundarbans
6.6.1 Overview of the Mangrove System
6.6.2 State of Nutrients in the Sundarbans
6.6.3 Nutrient Budget in the Sundarbans
6.6.3.1 Box Model Approach
6.6.3.2 Nitrogen Budget
6.6.3.3 Phosphorus Budget
6.7 Conclusion and Perspective
References
7: Mangroves as a Carbon Sink/Stocks
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Ecosystem Services by Mangroves
7.2.1 Ecological Role of Mangroves
7.2.2 Socio-Economic Role of Mangroves
7.3 Destruction of Mangroves
7.3.1 Anthropogenic Activities
7.3.2 Climate Change
7.4 Mangroves as a Carbon Sink
7.4.1 Biomass
7.4.2 Primary Productivity
7.5 Recent Advancements in Mangrove Carbon Sinks Studies
7.6 Conclusions
References
8: Estimation of Blue Carbon Stock of Mangrove Ecosystem and Its Dynamics in Relation to Hydrogeomorphic Settings and Land Use...
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Significance of Mangrove in Storing Carbon Over Other Ecosystems
8.2.1 Mangroves and Other Forest Ecosystems
8.2.2 Mangroves and Tidal Marshes and Seagrasses
8.3 Blue Carbon Sequestration
8.4 Indian Mangrove Ecosystems
8.4.1 Carbon Stored in Sundarban Mangrove (Bangladesh and India)
8.5 Threats to Mangrove Ecosystems
8.5.1 Degradation and Deforestation
8.5.2 Land Use and Land Cover Changes (LULC)
8.5.3 Aquaculture
8.5.4 Shrimp Farming
8.6 Emission of the Carbon Dioxide as Significant Greenhouse Gas (GHGs) Concern
8.6.1 Carbon Stock and Related Potential Carbon dioxide Emission of Various Mangroves Across the Globe
8.6.2 Estimated Carbon dioxide Emission Based on Ecosystem Loss Since European Settlement
8.6.3 Carbon dioxide Emission from Mangrove Conversion to Shrimp Farming
8.7 Adaptation Strategies to Balance the Land Use Land Cover and Ecosystem
8.7.1 IMTA (Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture)
8.7.2 Restoration of Mangroves
8.7.3 REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation)
8.8 Conclusion
References
9: Responses of Mangrove Ecosystems to Climate Change in the Anthropocene
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Past, Present, and Future Responses to Sea-Level Change
9.3 Responses to Rising Atmospheric CO2
9.4 Responses to Increasing Temperature
9.5 Responses to Changes in Precipitation and Extreme Weather Events
9.6 Responses to Coastal Ocean Acidification
9.7 Predictions and Conclusions
References
10: Roles of Mangroves in Combating the Climate Change
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Mangroves
10.2.1 Spatial Distribution
10.2.2 History
10.2.3 Features of Mangroves
10.3 Factor Affecting the Growth of Mangroves
10.3.1 Temperature
10.3.2 Atmospheric CO2 Concentration
10.3.3 Sea Level
10.3.4 Precipitation
10.3.5 Storms
10.4 Response of Mangroves to Environmental Stresses/Climate Change
10.4.1 Soil Characteristics
10.4.2 Salinity
10.4.3 Temperature
10.4.4 Metal and Organic Pollutant
10.4.5 Carbon Dioxide
10.4.6 Biotic Factors like Pests
10.5 Ecological Importance of Mangroves
10.6 Future Prospective and Conclusion
References
11: Role of Mangroves in Pollution Abatement
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Solutions from the Mangroves to Pollution Problems
11.2.1 Reducing Nutrient Loads
11.2.2 Reduction of Petroleum Hydrocarbons
11.2.3 Pesticides Degradation
11.2.4 Heavy Metals Remediation
11.2.5 Act as a Plastics Trap
11.2.6 Mangrove Residing Microorganisms
11.2.7 Carbon Sequestration
11.2.8 Coastal Protection
11.3 Conclusion
References
12: Measurement and Modeling of Above-Ground Root Systems as Attributes of Flow and Wave Attenuation Function of Mangroves
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Field Measurement of Mangrove Above-Ground Root Morphology
12.2.1 Manual Measurement
12.2.1.1 Prop Root System of Rhizophora
12.2.1.2 Pneumatophores of Avicennia and Sonneratia Species
12.2.2 Ground-Based Remote-Sensing Techniques
12.3 Modeling the Morphological Structure of the Prop Root System
12.3.1 Model for the Prop Root System with Only Primary Roots
12.3.2 Model for the Prop Root System with Multiple-Order Prop Roots
12.3.3 Analysis of the Scaling Relation in the Prop Root System
12.3.4 Site and Species Differences in the Scaling Relation
12.3.5 Representation of the Scaling Relations in Prop Root System
12.3.6 Effects of Environmental Conditions on Prop Root System Complexity
12.3.7 Prospective of the Development of the Universal Model for Prop Root System
12.3.8 Perspectives of Model Development of the Other Types of the Above-Ground Root System
References
13: Mangrove as a Natural Barrier to Environmental Risks and Coastal Protection
13.1 Introduction
13.2 An Overview of Mangrove Forests
13.3 Mangroves as a Natural Barrier and Coastal Protection
13.3.1 Mangroves as a Tsunami Barrier
13.3.2 Reduction of Wind and Swell Wave Damage
13.3.3 Protection against Storm Damage
13.3.4 Reduction of Coastal Erosion
13.4 Importance of Mangrove Forests
13.4.1 Act as Carbon Stores
13.4.2 Rural Livelihoods and Mangroves
13.4.3 Biodiversity of Mangroves
13.5 Conclusions
References
14: Diversity and Community Structure of Polychaetes in Mangroves of Indian Coast
14.1 Introduction
14.1.1 Importance of Mangroves and its Associated Faunal Groups
14.1.2 Role of Polychaetes in Mangrove Environment
14.2 Method of Collection of Polychaetes
14.2.1 Sieving, Treatment, Sorting, and Identification of Polychaetes
14.3 Diversity of Mangrove Associated Polychaetes along the Indian Coast
14.4 Diversity of Polychaetes in Mangroves of East Coast of India
14.5 Diversity of Polychaetes in Mangroves of West Coast of India
14.6 Unknown/Way Forward
14.7 Conclusion
References
15: Structure and Diversity of Plants in Mangrove Ecosystems
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Distribution of World Mangroves
15.3 Structure of Mangrove Ecosystems
15.4 Diversity of Mangrove Plants
15.5 Threat to Mangrove Forests
15.6 Conclusion
References
16: Livelihood of Forest Dependent Dwellers in Relation to the Exploitation of Resources at the Fringe of Indian Sundarban
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Study Area
16.3 Productivity of the Mangroves
16.4 Reclamation and Livelihood in Sundarban
16.5 Poor Land Utilization
16.5.1 Agriculture
16.5.2 Non-Timber Forest Products/Non-Wood Forest Products
16.5.2.1 Collection of Plant Resources
16.5.2.2 Fuelwood Collection
16.5.2.3 Apiculture
16.5.3 Fishery and Aquaculture
16.6 Conservation and Livelihood Conflicts
16.7 Livelihood vs Animal Attacks
16.8 Case Study: Livelihood of Three Fringe Villages of Sundarban
16.8.1 Materials and Methods
16.8.2 Category of Occupation and Resources
16.8.3 Relative Livelihood Index
16.9 Conclusion
References
17: The Roles of Mangroves in Sustainable Tourism Development
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Mangroves
17.3 Mangrove Tourism
17.4 Sustainable Development of Mangrove Tourism
17.4.1 Continuous Conservation and Restoration Efforts of Mangroves
17.4.2 Enhancing the Policies and Legislations of the Use and Management of Mangroves
17.4.3 Enhancing Infrastructure and Facilities, and Efficient Use of Resources through Sound Technologies to Environmental Cle...
17.4.4 Encouraging Community Participation and Engagement
17.5 Conclusions and Recommendations
References
18: Aquaculture in Mangroves
18.1 Introduction
18.2 The Role of Mangroves in Fisheries Habitat
18.3 Aquaculture Activities
18.3.1 Mangrove Ecosystem Services and Aquaculture Activities
18.3.2 Importance of Aquaculture Activities
18.3.2.1 Job Opportunities
18.3.2.2 Food Security
18.3.2.3 Aquaculture Monetary Benefits
18.4 Impact of Aquaculture in Mangroves
18.4.1 Eutrophication
18.4.2 Microplastic Pollution
18.4.3 Destruction of Mangrove Ecosystems
18.4.4 Introduction of Non-Native Species
18.5 Conclusion
References
19: Ecological Valuation and Ecosystem Services of Mangroves
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Components and Functions of the Mangrove Ecosystems
19.3 Goods and Services of Mangrove Ecosystems
19.4 Valuation Methods of Mangrove Ecosystem Services
19.5 Economic Value of Mangrove Ecosystem Services
19.6 Perspective and Conclusion
References
20: Management Action Plans for Development of Mangrove Forest Reserves
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Current Distribution and Status of Global Mangroves
20.3 Drivers of Mangrove Loss
20.4 Importance of Mangrove Conservation
20.5 Management Action Plans for Mangrove Forest Reserves Development
20.5.1 Action Plans
20.5.2 Site Selection
20.5.2.1 Windstorm Barrier and Coastal Protection
20.5.2.2 Act as Carbon Storage for Climate Regulation
20.5.2.3 Coastal Demographic Challenges
20.5.2.4 Ecotourism and Recreation Prospects
20.5.3 Scientific Expedition
20.5.3.1 Speeding up Scientific Research Activities and Collaborative Research
20.5.3.2 Strengthen International Cooperation in Research, Protection, and Restoration
20.5.4 StakeholdersΒ΄ Consultation
20.5.4.1 Reinforce Knowledge the Role, Value of Mangroves Management and Sustainability
20.5.4.2 Transform Perception of Managers in Localities on the Role and Values of Mangrove
20.5.4.3 Socialize Forestry and Upgrade Living Standard for Local People
20.5.4.4 Consolidation of Mangrove Management Systems at all Levels
20.5.4.5 Brief about the Proposed Action Plan to all Stakeholders
20.5.5 Determining Boundaries
20.5.5.1 Marking Selected Mangrove Areas on the Map
20.5.5.2 Mangrove Areas Demarcation
20.5.6 Gazettement
20.5.6.1 Preparing Authorized Documents for Gazettement of Mangrove Areas as Forest Reserves
20.5.6.2 Approval of Gazettement of Mangroves Areas
20.5.7 Enforcements
20.6 Conclusion
References
21: Geospatial Tools for Mapping and Monitoring Coastal Mangroves
21.1 Introduction
21.1.1 Distribution of Mangrove Ecosystem
21.1.2 Ecological Function
21.1.3 Threats on Mangroves
21.1.4 Conservation and Management
21.1.5 Information Needs for Monitoring Mangrove Ecosystems
21.2 Concepts of Geoinformatics
21.2.1 Basics of Maps
21.2.1.1 Scale
21.2.1.2 Coordinate System and Map Projections
21.2.1.3 Surveying
21.2.1.4 Global Positioning System and Geo-location
21.3 Remote Sensing: An Introduction
21.3.1 Electromagnetic Radiation
21.3.2 Interaction of EMR
21.3.3 Spectral Signatures
21.3.4 Evolution of Remote Sensing
21.3.4.1 Types of Remote Sensing
Based on the Source of EMR
Based on the Platform
21.3.5 Resolutions in Remote Sensing Data
21.3.5.1 Spatial Resolution
21.3.5.2 Radiometric Resolution
21.3.5.3 Spectral Resolution
21.3.5.4 Temporal Resolution
21.3.6 Multispectral Remote Sensing
21.3.6.1 Thematic Mapping
Visual Interpretation
Minimum Mapping Unit
21.3.6.2 Digital Image Analysis
Image Preprocessing
Image Classification
Accuracy Assessment
21.3.6.3 Vegetation Indices (VI)
21.3.7 High Resolution Imaging and analysis
21.3.8 Hyperspectral Remote Sensing
21.3.9 Microwave Remote Sensing
21.3.10 Evolution of RS Data Access
21.4 Geographic Information System
21.4.1 GIS/Spatial Data Model and Data
21.4.1.1 Selection of Data Type
21.4.1.2 GIS/Spatial Data
21.4.2 Attribute Data
21.4.3 Classification Scheme and Database
21.4.4 Data Input and Editing
21.4.5 Analysis
21.4.6 Three-Dimensional (3D) Data and Analysis
21.4.7 Spatial Modelling
21.4.8 Web GIS
21.4.9 Spatial Data Quality
21.5 Open Geospatial Data and Software Availability
21.6 Applications of Earth Observation Techniques for Mangrove Ecosystem Monitoring
21.6.1 Mapping and Monitoring of Mangrove Wetlands
21.6.1.1 Wetland Mapping Scheme
21.6.1.2 Limitations
21.6.2 Floristic Discrimination of Mangroves
21.6.2.1 Traditional Remote Sensing Methods
21.6.2.2 Image Processing of Multispectral, Hyperspectral and Microwave Data
21.6.3 Biophysical Characterization of Mangroves
21.6.4 Characterizing Foliar Biochemistry of Mangroves
21.7 GIS in Mangrove Monitoring and Management
21.7.1 Developing GIS of Mangrove Ecosystem
21.7.1.1 Define the Study Region
21.7.1.2 Shortlisting the Required Layers/Maps
21.7.1.3 GIS Input
21.7.1.4 Analysis
Change Detection and Time Series Analysis
Shoreline Changes
21.7.2 Environmental Parameters of Mangrove Ecosystem
21.7.3 Mangrove Conservation and Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Mapping
21.7.4 Integrated Coastal Zone Management
21.8 Streamlining the Geospatial Techniques for Mangrove
21.9 Conclusions
Annexure 1: List of Land Observation Remote Sensors
Microwave Remote Sensors
Hyperspectral Remote Sensors (Imaging Spectrometers)
Annexure 2: Mapping and Monitoring of Mangrove Wetlands Using Remote Sensing and GIS
Annexure 3: Floristic Discrimination of Indian Mangroves
Annexure 4: Studies on Biophysical and Biochemical Characterization of Indian Mangroves
Annexure 5: Shoreline Changes
Annexure 6: Coastal Zone Management
References