Contents
About the Editors
Part I: General Aspects
Chapter 1: Mangroves: A Unique Ecosystem and Its Significance
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Mangrove Definition
1.3 Global Distribution of Mangroves
1.4 Mangroves: A Unique Ecosystem
1.5 Significance of Mangroves
References
Chapter 2: Mangrove Forests and Silviculture
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Site Factors for Mangroves
2.3 Species Distribution
2.4 Classification of Mangroves
2.5 Characteristic Features of Mangrove Flora
2.5.1 Root Systems
2.5.2 Leaf Structure
2.5.3 Germination
2.6 Silviculture of Some Important Mangroves
2.6.1 Heritiera fomes Buch. Ham. Syn. Heritiera minor Lam. Family: Sterculiaceae
2.6.2 Heritiera littoralis Dry. Family: Sterculiaceae
2.6.3 Avicennia officinalis L. Syn. A. tomentosa Wall. Family: Verbenaceae
2.6.4 Rhizophora mucronata Lam. Family: Rhizophoraceae
2.6.5 Rhizophora apiculata Blume Syn. R. conjugata L. Family: Rhizophoraceae
2.6.6 Ceriops decandra Griff. Syn, C. roxburghiana Arn., and Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C.B. Robs. Family: Rhizophoraceae
2.6.7 Bruguiera gymnorhiza Lam. Family: Rhizophoraceae
2.6.8 Bruguiera parviflora Wight & Arn. Family: Rhizophoraceae
2.6.9 Sonneratia apetala Ham. Family: Lythraceae (Recently Placed in Sonneratiaceae)
2.6.10 Sonneratia acida L.
2.6.11 Exoecaria agallocha L. Family: Euphorbiaceae
2.6.12 Kandelia candel (L.) Druce and Kandelia rheedii Wight & Arn. Family: Rhizophoraceae
2.6.13 Aegiceras corniculatum Blanco. Syn. A. majus Gaertn. Family: Myrsinaceae
2.6.14 Nypa fruticans Wurmb. Family: Arecaceae
2.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 3: A Review of the Reproductive Ecology of Mangrove Plant Species
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Viviparous Species
3.2.1 Family Rhizophoraceae
3.2.1.1 Genus Bruguiera
3.2.1.1.1 B. gymnorrhiza and B. cylindrica
3.2.1.2 Genus Ceriops
3.2.1.2.1 C. decandra
3.2.1.2.2 C. tagal
3.2.1.3 Genus Kandelia
3.2.1.4 Genus Rhizophora
3.2.1.4.1 R. apiculata and R. mucronata
3.3 Crypto-Viviparous Species
3.3.1 Genus Avicennia (Avicenniaceae)
3.3.1.1 Avicennia alba, A. marina and A. officinalis
3.3.2 Genus Aegiceras (Myrsinaceae)
3.3.3 Genus Aegialitis (Aegialitidaceae)
3.4 Non-Viviparous Species
3.4.1 Genus Lumnitzera (Combretaceae)
3.4.2 Genus Excoecaria (Euphorbiaceae)
3.4.3 Genus Barringtonia (Lecythidaceae)
3.4.4 Genus Xylocarpus (Meliaceae)
3.4.4.1 X. granatum and X. mekongensis
3.4.5 Genus Scyphiphora (Rubiaceae)
3.4.6 Genus Sonneratia (Sonneratiaceae)
3.4.6.1 S. caseolaris
3.4.6.2 S. apetala
3.4.6.3 S. alba
3.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 4: Mangrove Health Analysis Using Multi-Temporal Sentinel-2 Multi-Spectral Instrument (MSI) Data
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Spectral Reflectance of Vegetation
4.3 Vegetation Indices
4.4 Vegetation Indices for Mangrove
4.5 Advantages and Limitations of VIs in Mangrove Studies
4.6 Materials and Methods
4.6.1 Study Region
4.6.2 Flora of Sundarbans Delta
4.6.3 Satellite Data
4.6.4 Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)
4.6.5 Normalized Difference Chlorophyll Index (NDCI)
4.6.6 Normalized Difference Moisture Index (NDMI)
4.6.7 Statistical Analyses of the Indices
4.7 Results and Discussion
4.7.1 Spatial Variability of Mean Values of Vegetation Indices
4.7.2 Statistical Analyses of the Indices
4.7.3 Temporal Profiles of the Indices
4.8 Conclusions
References
Chapter 5: Ethnobotany of Mangroves: A Review
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Mangrove Uses
5.2.1 Timber and Fuelwood
5.2.2 Non-Wood Forest Products
5.2.3 Medicinal Uses
5.3 Discussion
5.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 6: Mangrove Ecosystems and Their Services
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Understanding the Ecosystem
6.2.1 Biotic Components
6.2.2 Abiotic Components
6.3 Underlying Ecology
6.4 Types of Ecosystem Services
6.4.1 Supporting Services
6.4.2 Regulating Services
6.4.2.1 Climate Regulation
6.4.2.2 Carbon Sequestration and Air Quality
6.4.2.3 Waste Treatment and Disease Regulation
6.4.2.4 Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen Balance in Air
6.4.2.5 Regulation as Buffer Zones
6.4.3 Provisioning Services
6.4.4 Cultural Services
6.5 Mangrove Ecosystem Services
6.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 7: Mangrove Forests and PeopleΒ΄s Livelihoods
7.1 Introduction
7.2 The Importance of Mangroves to People
7.3 Socio-economic Profile of Villages in and Around Mangroves
7.4 Dependence on Mangrove Forest Resources
7.4.1 Fuelwood and Timber Collection
7.4.2 Fishing and Crab Collection
7.4.3 Shrimp Collection
7.4.4 Honey Collection
7.4.5 Collection of Plant Parts for Medicine
7.4.6 Ecotourism
7.5 Factors Influencing Forest Dependency
7.5.1 Agricultural Land Size
7.5.2 Household Size
7.5.3 Education Level
7.6 Alternate Livelihood Potential in Mangrove Areas
7.6.1 Mushroom Cultivation
7.6.2 Apiculture
7.6.3 Pisciculture in Ponds
7.6.4 Coconut Cultivation
7.6.5 Fruit and Vegetable Vending
7.6.6 Grocery Shop
7.6.7 Poultry and Livestock Farming
7.7 JFM and Livelihood Options
7.7.1 Experiences of JFM in India
7.7.1.1 Rehabilitation and Improvement in the Conditions of Forests
7.7.1.2 Increase in Livelihood Options
7.7.1.3 Reduction in Encroachments
7.7.1.4 Involvement of NGOs
7.7.1.5 Change in Attitude and Relationship
7.8 Conclusions
References
Chapter 8: Climate Change and Mangroves
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Impacts of Climate Change
8.2.1 Rising Temperatures, Increased Storms, Extreme Weather Events, and Precipitation Changes
8.2.2 Sea-Level Rise (SLR)
8.2.3 Rising Atmospheric CO2
8.2.4 Coastal Acidification
8.2.5 Increasing Hypoxia
8.3 Predictions
8.4 Climate Change Mitigation
8.4.1 Significance of Mangrove Blue Carbon
8.4.2 Future CO2 Emissions
References
Chapter 9: Rehabilitation and Restoration of Mangroves
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Why We Need Mangrove Restoration?
9.3 Mangrove Ecology
9.4 Mangrove Restoration
9.4.1 Natural Regeneration
9.4.2 Artificial Regeneration
9.4.2.1 Selection of Site for Mangrove Restoration
9.4.2.2 Choice of Species on the Basis of Salinity
9.4.2.3 Choice of Species on the Basis of Ground Elevation
9.4.2.4 Flowering, Fruiting and Fruit/Seed Collection Time of some Mangroves
9.4.2.5 Collection of Seeds/Propagules
9.4.2.6 Nursery Techniques
9.4.2.7 Artificial Regeneration Techniques
9.4.2.8 Hurdles in Mangrove Regeneration
9.5 Mangrove Protection
9.5.1 Participatory Management
9.5.2 Eco-Development/JFM Support Activities
9.5.3 Awareness Campaign
9.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 10: Threats to Mangroves and Conservation Strategies
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Natural Threats to Mangroves and Climate Change
10.3 Population Pressure
10.4 Forestry and Silviculture
10.5 Fisheries
10.6 Aquaculture
10.7 Agriculture and Mining
10.8 Tourism, Recreation and Education
10.9 Management Shortcomings
10.10 Conclusions
References
Part II: Country Case Studies
Chapter 11: Mangrove Forests of India: An Overview
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Extent of Mangrove Cover in India
11.3 Floral Diversity in Mangrove Forests of India
11.4 Faunal Diversity in Mangroves of India
11.5 Drivers and Pressures
11.5.1 Sundarbans, West Bengal
11.5.2 Odisha
11.5.3 Andhra Pradesh
11.5.4 Tamil Nadu
11.5.5 Andaman and Nicobar Islands
11.5.6 Gujarat
11.5.7 Maharashtra and Goa
11.5.8 Karnataka
11.5.9 Kerala
11.6 Conservation and Management of Mangroves in India
11.7 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 12: Mangroves of Sundarban
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Physical Attributes
12.2.1 Geology, Rock and Soil
12.2.2 Hydrology and Water Sources
12.2.2.1 River Systems
12.2.2.2 Climate
12.2.2.3 Tidal Amplitude
12.2.2.4 Water Supply
12.3 Floral Biodiversity
12.3.1 Vegetation Type
12.3.1.1 Mangrove Scrub: Sub-Type 4B/TS1
12.3.1.2 Mangrove Forest: Sub-Type 4B/TS2
12.3.1.3 Salt-Water Mixed Forest (Heritiera): Sub-Type 4B/TS3
12.3.1.4 Brackish-Water Mixed Forest (Heritiera): Sub-Type 4B/TS4
12.3.1.5 Palm Swamp Type: Sub-Type 4B/E1
12.3.2 Vegetation Succession
12.3.3 Mangrove Species Preferred by Wildlife
12.4 Faunal Biodiversity
12.4.1 Historical Perspective
12.4.2 The Current Status
12.4.2.1 The Arboreal Community
12.4.2.2 Terrestrial and Aquatic Community
12.4.2.2.1 Mammals
12.4.2.2.2 Reptiles
12.4.2.2.3 Avifauna
12.4.2.3 Aquatic Community
12.4.2.3.1 Fishes and Crabs
12.4.2.3.2 Sharks and Rays
12.5 Phytoplankton, Zooplankton and Microbial Diversity
12.5.1 Phytoplankton
12.5.2 Zooplankton
12.5.3 Microbial Activity
12.6 Mangrove Dependence and Livelihoods
12.6.1 Socio-Economic Profile of the Villages
12.6.2 Resource Dependence of the Villagers
12.6.2.1 Fuelwood and Timber Collection
12.6.2.2 Fishing
12.6.2.3 Tiger Prawn Seed Collection
12.6.2.4 Honey Collection
12.6.2.5 Ecotourism
12.7 Threats and Conservation
12.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 13: Sri Lankan Mangroves: Biodiversity, Livelihoods, and Conservation
13.1 Introduction
13.1.1 Dynamics of Physiochemical Characteristics
13.1.1.1 Soil and Sediments
13.1.1.2 Salinity
13.1.1.3 Total Organic Carbon (TOC)
13.1.1.4 pH and Redox Potential
13.2 Floral Biodiversity of Mangroves in Sri Lanka
13.3 Faunal Biodiversity of Mangroves in Sri Lanka
13.3.1 Mangrove Fauna
13.3.1.1 Invertebrate Fauna
13.3.1.2 The Crab Fauna (Crustacea: Brachyura)
13.3.1.3 Other Crustaceans
13.3.1.4 Mollusca
13.3.1.5 Polychetes
13.3.1.6 Zooplankton
13.3.2 Vertebrates
13.3.2.1 Ichthyofauna
13.3.2.2 Amphibians
13.3.2.3 Reptiles
13.3.2.4 Avifauna
13.3.2.5 Mammals
13.4 Ecosystem Services
13.4.1 Provisioning Services
13.4.2 Food
13.4.3 Timber and Fuelwood
13.4.4 Medicines
13.4.5 Other Non-timber Forest Products
13.5 Regulating Services
13.5.1 Protecting the Shoreline
13.5.2 Trapping Pollutants
13.5.3 Supporting Services
13.5.4 Biodiversity
13.5.5 Sequestering Carbon
13.5.6 Retention/Detention of Sediments
13.5.7 Primary Production
13.5.8 Aesthetic Services
13.6 Livelihoods
13.7 Threats
13.7.1 Overexploitation of Mangrove Products
13.7.2 Habitat Destruction
13.7.3 Pollution
13.7.4 Invasive Alien Species (IAS)
13.7.5 Climate Change and Global Warming
13.8 Regeneration of Mangroves/Silviculture
13.9 Conservation
13.10 Highlights of the Sri Lankan Mangrove Conservation Project
References
Chapter 14: Mangroves in Myanmar
14.1 Physical Attributes and Characteristics
14.1.1 Mangrove Coverage
14.1.2 Tides and Their Effects
14.2 Ecology and Ecological Processes
14.3 Floral Biodiversity
14.4 Faunal Biodiversity
14.5 Ecosystem Services of Mangroves in Myanmar
14.6 Regeneration of Mangrove and Silviculture
14.6.1 Post-Cyclone Mangrove Regeneration and Reproduction
14.6.2 Silvicultural Implication After the Cyclone Disturbance
14.7 Global Climate Change and Mangroves
14.7.1 Cyclone Nargis
14.8 Livelihoods
14.8.1 Fisheries
14.8.2 Mangrove Aquaculture Ponds
14.8.3 Mud Crab Catching
14.8.4 Rice Cultivation
14.8.5 Fuelwood
14.8.6 Mangrove Tourism
14.9 Threats and Conservation
14.9.1 Threats
14.9.1.1 Fuelwood and Wood Products
14.9.1.2 Rice Fields, Shrimp Farming, and Salt Pans
14.9.1.3 Climate Change and Natural Disasters
14.9.1.4 Coastal and Delta Development with Human Settlement
14.9.1.5 Improper Revenue Collection System
14.9.1.6 Grazing
14.9.2 Conservation and Management
14.9.3 Afforestation
14.9.4 Legislation
14.10 Case Study: Perspectives of Awareness, Attitudes, and Participation of Local Stakeholders in Mangrove Ecosystem Conserva...
14.10.1 Background
14.10.2 Study Site
14.10.3 Awareness and Attitude on Diverse Livelihood Patterns
References
Chapter 15: Mangroves of Malaysia
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Biodiversity
15.3 Livelihoods
15.4 Threats
15.5 Restoration, Conservation, and Management
15.5.1 Sungai ISME
15.5.2 Sungai Tokio Marine
15.5.3 Sepilok Laut
15.5.3.1 Mangrove Rehabilitation Projects Implemented by ISME
15.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 16: Mangrove Biodiversity, Conservation and Roles for Livelihoods in Indonesia
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Mangrove Area and Distribution
16.3 Ecology and Biogeography Characteristics
16.4 Floral and Faunal Biodiversity
16.4.1 Floral Mangroves
16.4.2 Fauna of Mangroves
16.5 Phytoplankton and Zooplankton Diversity
16.6 Ecosystem Services and Livelihoods
16.7 Global Change and Anthropogenic Threats and Conservation
16.8 The Success Story of Mangrove Restoration/Rehabilitation
16.9 Community Participation in Mangrove Management and Its Various Problems: Case studies
16.10 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 17: Mangroves Sustaining Biodiversity, Local Livelihoods, Blue Carbon, and Local Resilience in Verde Island Passage in...
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Study Site
17.3 State of Mangrove Cover in VIP
17.4 Mangrove Sustaining Marine Biodiversity
17.5 Mangroves Sustaining Coastal Livelihoods
17.6 Mangroves Sustaining Blue Carbon
17.7 Mangrove Sustaining Local Resilience
17.8 Summary and Recommendations
References
Chapter 18: Mangroves of Japan
18.1 General Description
18.1.1 Mangroves in Okinawa Prefecture
18.1.2 Mangroves in Kagoshima Prefecture
18.1.3 Extent of Mangroves in Okinawa Prefecture
18.1.4 Highlights of Some Mangrove Species
18.2 Mineral Nutrients in the Leaves of Two Mangrove Species
18.2.1 Introduction
18.2.2 Materials and Methods
18.2.3 Results and Discussion
18.2.3.1 Content of Mineral Nutrients in Mangrove Rivers
18.2.3.2 Mineral Elements in Mangrove Leaves and River Water
18.2.3.3 Relations Between Contents of Minerals in Mangrove Leaves
18.2.4 Conclusions
18.3 Decapod Crustaceans Inhabiting Mangrove Ecosystems
18.3.1 Introduction
18.3.2 Faunal Components and Their Habitat Use
18.3.3 Distributional Features
18.4 Tourism and Beach Cleaning on Iriomote Island
18.4.1 Number of Tourists Visiting
18.4.2 Beach Cleaning Activities on Iriomote Island
References
Chapter 19: Mangroves of Ecuador
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Physical Attributes and Characteristics
19.3 Floral Biodiversity
19.4 Faunal Biodiversity
19.4.1 Birds
19.4.2 Herpetofauna
19.4.3 Mammals
19.4.4 Commercial Species
19.5 Phytoplankton, Zooplankton, and Microbial Diversity
19.6 Ecosystem Services
19.7 Regeneration of Mangrove/Silviculture
19.8 Global Change and Its Effect on Mangroves
19.8.1 El NiΓ±o Southern Oscillation
19.9 Livelihoods
19.10 Threats and Conservation
19.11 Conservation
19.11.1 State Protected Areas (SNAP)
19.11.2 Agreements of Sustainable Use and Custody of the Mangrove Ecosystem (AUSCEM)
19.11.3 Socio Manglar, Incentive for Mangrove Conservation
19.11.4 International Categories
19.11.4.1 Ramsar Sites
19.11.4.2 Important Bird Areas (IBA)
19.12 Case Study. Management Effectiveness of Agrements of Sustainable Use and Mangrove in the Province of El Oro
19.12.1 Results
19.12.2 Mangrove Conservation Status
19.12.3 Performance of Entities that Support Organizations with AUSCEM
19.12.4 Compliance of the Organizations with AUSCEM
19.12.5 Performance of the Organizations with AUSCEM
References
Chapter 20: Mangroves of Brazil
20.1 Physical Attributes and Characteristics
20.1.1 Extension of Mangroves in Brazil
20.1.2 Forest Typology
20.2 Floral Biodiversity
20.2.1 Biogeography and Present Composition and Distribution of `TrueΒ΄ Mangroves
20.2.2 Other Associated Plant Species
20.3 Faunal Diversity
20.4 Phytoplankton, Zooplankton, and Microbial Diversity
20.5 Ecology and Ecological Processes
20.5.1 Major Aspects of Mangrove Tree Ecological Adaptations
20.5.2 Biomass, Productivity, and Carbon Allocation
20.5.3 Nutrient Cycling
20.6 Ecosystems Services
20.7 Livelihoods
20.8 Regeneration and Restoration of Mangroves
20.9 Threats and Conservation
20.10 Global Change and Its Effect on Mangroves
20.11 Conclusions
References
Chapter 21: Cameroon Mangroves: Current Status, Uses, Challenges, and Management Perspectives
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Extent and Distribution of Mangroves in Cameroon
21.2.1 Site Description of Cameroon Mangroves
21.2.2 Panoramic Appraisal of Cameroon Mangrove Blocks
21.2.2.1 The Rio del Rey Estuary Block
21.2.2.2 Cameroon Mangrove Estuary
21.2.2.3 Ntem Mangrove Estuary
21.2.3 Status of Mangrove Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
21.2.3.1 Floristic Diversity
21.2.3.2 Phytoplankton
21.2.3.3 Fauna Diversity
21.3 Stand Structural Characteristics: Stand Densities, Volume, Biomass, and Carbon Stocks
21.3.1 Mangrove Forest Dynamics and Carbon Sequestration
21.4 Values and Current Uses of Mangrove
21.4.1 Mangrove Goods and Services
21.4.2 Economic Valuation of Mangrove Ecosystem Services
21.4.3 Socio-Economic Elements and Main Uses of Natural Resources
21.4.4 Fishing Practices in Mangrove Areas
21.4.5 Sand Mining
21.4.6 Sectors of Industrial Development and Pollution
21.4.7 Urbanization and the Development of Human Settlements
21.4.8 Logging and Forest Resource Management
21.4.9 Some Cultural Services
21.4.10 Ecotourism Potential
21.5 Threats, Challenges, and Drivers of Mangrove Biodiversity Loss
21.5.1 Conversion and Degradation of Mangroves Ecosystems in Cameroon
21.5.2 Trends in Mangroves and Associated Coastal Forests Cover Changes
21.5.3 Causes and Consequences of Mangrove Conversion/Deforestation and Degradation in Cameroon
21.5.3.1 Conversion or Deforestation of Mangrove Ecosystems in Cameroon
21.5.3.2 Degradation of Mangrove Ecosystems in Cameroon
21.5.3.3 Degradation Through Pollution of Mangrove Ecosystems
21.5.3.4 Policy, Legal, and Institutional Challenges to Sustainable Mangrove Management
21.6 Addressing the Threats and Challenges
21.6.1 Conservation
21.6.1.1 Creation of Mangrove Protected Areas
21.6.1.2 Ramsar Site Creation Initiatives
21.6.2 Development of Environmental Awareness and Education Tools for Mangroves
21.6.3 Mangrove Restoration Practices Through Reforestation
21.6.4 Practices for Sustainable Use Technologies of Mangrove Resources
21.6.5 Participatory Management
21.6.5.1 Through Mangrove, Marine, and Coastal Platforms
21.6.5.2 Through the Regime of Communal and Community Forests
21.6.6 Research and Monitoring
21.7 Perspectives for Sustainable Mangrove Management
21.7.1 Conclusions
21.7.2 Recommendations
21.7.2.1 General Recommendations
21.7.2.2 Recommendations on Legal Aspects
21.7.2.3 Recommendations on Institutional Aspects
21.7.2.4 Roles of Stakeholders in Implementing Recommendations
References