Joint Structure and Function: A Comprehensive Analysis

✍ Scribed by Pamela K. Levangie PT DPT DSc FAPTA, Cynthia C. Norkin PT EdD, Michael D. Lewek PT PhD

• Publisher: F.A. Davis Company
• Year: 2019
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 1756
• Edition: 6
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

Joint Structure & Function, 6th Edition + Kinesiology in Action www.KinesiologyInAction.com Instant Access: ISBN-13: 978-0-8036-6954-3 Access Card: ISBN-13: 978-0-8036-7599-5 Joint Structure & Function, 6th Edition and Kinesiology in Action work together to create an interactive learning experience that teaches students the knowledge and skills to effectively evaluate and treat human movement disorders. The text provides comprehensive foundational knowledge. DavisPlus equips instructors with the lesson plans and activities they need to create active classroom where students can apply what they’re learning. Davis Edge tracks student progress and assesses their knowledge in real time until they’ve mastered the must-know concepts. Text Joint Structure & Function A Comprehensive Analysis, 6th Edition This popular text offers the clear, logical discussions of joint structure and muscle action, combined with an evidence-based approach needed to understand joint dynamics in both health and disease. Kinesiology in Action www.KinesiologyInAction.com This interactive, online program guides students step by step through an immersive multimedia experience that tracks their progress until they’ve mastered the concepts and are ready to apply them in practice. An access code inside new printed texts unlocks Kinesiology in Action.

✦ Table of Contents

Cover
Copyright
Editors
Dedication
Preface
Contributors
Chapter 1: Biomechanical Applications to Joint Structure and Function
Introduction
PART 1: Kinematics and Introduction to Kinetics
Descriptions of Motion
Types of Displacement
Translatory Motion
Rotary Motion
General Motion
Location of Displacement in Space
Direction of Displacement
Magnitude of Displacement
Rate of Displacement
Introduction to Forces
Definition of Forces
Force Vectors
Force of Gravity
Segmental Centers of Mass and Composition of Gravitational Forces
Center of Mass of the Human Body
Center of Mass, Line of Gravity, and Stability
Introduction to Statics and Dynamics
Newton’s Law of Inertia
Newton’s Law of Acceleration
Translatory Motion in Linear and Concurrent Force Systems
Linear Force Systems
Determining Resultant Forces in a Linear Force System
Concurrent Force Systems
Determining Resultant Forces in a Concurrent Force System
Newton’s Law of Reaction
Gravitational and Contact Forces
Additional Linear Force Considerations
Tensile Forces
Joint Distraction
Joint Compression and Joint Reaction Forces
Revisiting Newton’s Law of Equilibrium
Vertical and Horizontal Linear Force Systems
Shear and Friction Forces
Static Friction and Kinetic Friction
Considering Vertical and Horizontal Linear Equilibrium
PART 2: Kinetics—Considering Rotary and Translatory Forces and Motions
Torque, or Moment of Force
Parallel Force Systems
Determining Resultant Forces in a Parallel Force System
Identifying the Joint Axis About Which Body Segments Rotate
Bending Moments and Torsional Moments
Muscle Forces
Total Muscle Force Vector
Anatomic Pulleys
Anatomic Pulleys, Action Lines, and Moment Arms
Torque Revisited
Changes to Moment Arm of a Force
Angular Acceleration With Changing Torques
Moment Arm and Angle of Application of a Force
Changing the Gravitation Moment Arm by Changing the Center of Mass
Lever Systems, or Classes of Levers
Mechanical Advantage
Limitations of Analysis of Forces by Lever Systems
Force Components
Resolving Forces into Perpendicular and Parallel Components
Perpendicular and Parallel Force Effects
Determining Magnitudes of Component Forces
Force Components and the Angle of Application of the Force
Manipulating External Forces to Maximize Torque
Translatory Effects of Force Components
Rotary Effects of Force Components
Multisegment (Closed-Chain) Force Analysis
Summary
Study Questions
References
Chapter 2: Complexity of Human Joint Design
Introduction
Form Follows Function
The Complexity of Human Joint Design
Joint Classification
Fibrous Joints
Cartilaginous Joints
Synovial Joints
JOINT CAPSULE
SYNOVIAL FLUID
HYALINE CARTILAGE
SYNOVIAL JOINT ASSOCIATED STRUCTURES
CLASSIFICATION OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS
Joint Motion
Osteokinematics
Arthrokinematics
Range of Motion
Kinematic Chains
Materials Found in Human Joints
Composition of Connective Tissue
Cells
Extracellular Matrix
FIBRILLAR COMPONENT
INTERFIBRILLAR COMPONENT
Specific Connective Tissue Composition
Ligaments
Tendons
Cartilage
HYALINE CARTILAGE
FIBROCARTILAGE
Bone
Behavioral Properties of Connective Tissue
Structural and Material Properties
Load, Force, and Elongation
Stress and Strain
Viscoelasticity
Time-Dependent and Rate-Dependent Properties
Creep
Stress-Relaxation
Strain-Rate Sensitivity
Properties of Specific Tissues
Bone
Tendons
Ligaments
Cartilage
General Changes With Disease, Injury, Immobilization, Exercise, and Overuse
Disease
Injury
Immobilization (Stress Deprivation)
Effects on Ligament and Tendon
Effects on Articular Surfaces and Bone
Exercise
Bone Response to Exercise
Cartilage Response to Exercise
Tendon Response to Exercise
Ligament Response to Exercise
Overuse
Summary
Study Questions
References
Chapter 3: Muscle Structure and Function
Introduction
Elements of Muscle Structure
Composition of a Muscle Fiber
Contractile Proteins
Structural Proteins
The Contractile Unit
Organization of the Contractile Unit
Cross-Bridge Interaction
Types of Muscle Contraction
The Motor Unit
Organization of the Motor Unit
Recruitment of Motor Units
Muscle Structure
Fiber Types
Muscle Architecture: Size, Arrangement, and Length
Muscular Connective Tissue
Organization of Connective Tissue in Muscle
Parallel and Series Elastic Components of Muscle
Muscle Function
Muscle Tension
Passive Tension
Active Tension
Isometric Length-Tension Relationship
APPLICATION OF THE LENGTH-TENSION RELATIONSHIP
Force-Velocity Relationship
Types of Muscle Action
Production of Torque
Interaction of Muscle and Tendon
Isokinetic Exercise and Testing
Classification of Muscles
Based on the Role of the Muscle in Movement
Based on Muscle Architecture
Based on Length of the Moment Arm
Factors Affecting Muscle Function
Types of Joints and Location of Muscle Attachments
Number of Joints
Passive Insufficiency
Sensory Receptors
Effects of Immobilization, Injury, and Aging
Immobilization
In Shortened Position
In Lengthened Position
Injury
Overuse
Muscle Strain
Eccentric Exercise-Induced Muscle Injury
Aging
Fiber Number and Fiber Type Changes
Connective Tissue Changes
Summary
Study Questions
References
Chapter 4: The Vertebral Column
Anatomy Overview
Introduction
Structure and Function of the Vertebral Column
Structure
The Mobile Segment
A Typical Vertebra
The Intervertebral Disc
NUCLEUS PULPOSUS
ANNULUS FIBROSUS
VERTEBRAL ENDPLATES
INNERVATION AND NUTRITION
Articulations
INTERBODY JOINTS
ZYGAPOPHYSEAL ARTICULATIONS
Ligaments and Joint Capsules
ANTERIOR AND POSTERIOR LONGITUDINAL LIGAMENTS
LIGAMENTUM FLAVUM
INTERSPINOUS LIGAMENTS
SUPRASPINOUS LIGAMENT
INTERTRANSVERSE LIGAMENTS
ZYGAPOPHYSEAL JOINT CAPSULES
Function
Kinematics
FLEXION
EXTENSION
LATERAL FLEXION
ROTATION
Kinetics
AXIAL COMPRESSION
BENDING
TORSION
SHEAR
Regional Structure and Function
Structure of the Cervical Region
Craniovertebral Region
ATLAS
AXIS
Articulations
Craniovertebral Ligaments
TRANSVERSE LIGAMENT
ALAR LIGAMENTS
The Lower Cervical Region
TYPICAL CERVICAL VERTEBRAE
Body
Arches
Intervertebral Disc
Interbody Joints of the Lower Cervical Region
Zygapophyseal Joints
Function of the Cervical Region
Kinematics
Kinetics
Structure of the Thoracic Region
Typical Thoracic Vertebrae
BODY
ARCHES
Pedicles
Laminae
Zygapophyseal Articular Processes
Transverse Processes
Spinous Processes
Vertebral Foramen
Intervertebral Discs
Articulations
INTERBODY JOINTS
ZYGAPOPHYSEAL JOINTS
Ligaments
Atypical Thoracic Vertebrae
Function of the Thoracic Region
Kinematics
Kinetics
Structure of the Lumbar Region
Typical Lumbar Vertebrae
BODY
ARCHES
Pedicles
Laminae
Zygapophyseal Articular Processes
Transverse Process
Spinous Process
Vertebral Foramen
Atypical Lumbar Vertebra
Intervertebral Discs
Articulations
INTERBODY JOINTS
ZYGAPOPHYSEAL JOINTS
Ligaments and Fascia
ILIOLUMBAR LIGAMENTS
THORACOLUMBAR FASCIA
Function of the Lumbar Region
Kinematics
Lumbopelvic Rhythm
Kinetics
COMPRESSION
SHEAR
Structure of the Sacral Region
Sacroiliac Articulations
ARTICULATING SURFACES ON THE ILIA
ARTICULATING SURFACES ON THE SACRUM
SACROILIAC LIGAMENTS
Symphysis Pubis Articulation
Function of the Sacral Region
Kinematics
Kinetics
Muscles of the Vertebral Column
The Craniocervical/Upper Thoracic Regions
Posterior Muscles
Lateral Muscles
Anterior Muscles
Lower Thoracic/Lumbopelvic Regions
Posterior Muscles
Lateral Muscles
Anterior Muscles
Muscles of the Pelvic Floor
Structure
Function
Squat Lift Versus Stoop Lift
Effects of Aging
Summary
Study Questions
References
Chapter 5: The Thorax and Chest Wall
Introduction
Structure and Function of the Thorax
Structure
Structure of the Rib Cage
Articulations of the Rib Cage
MANUBRIOSTERNAL AND XIPHISTERNAL JOINTS
COSTOVERTEBRAL JOINTS
COSTOTRANSVERSE JOINTS
COSTOCHONDRAL AND CHONDROSTERNAL JOINTS
INTERCHONDRAL JOINTS
Function
Kinematics of the Ribs and Manubriosternum
Muscles Associated With the Rib Cage
PRIMARY MUSCLES OF VENTILATION
Diaphragm
Intercostal Muscles
Scalene Muscles
ACCESSORY MUSCLES OF VENTILATION
Coordination and Integration of Ventilatory Motions
Lifespan and Clinical Considerations
Differences Associated With the Neonate
Differences Associated With the Elderly
Pathological Changes in Structure and Function
Summary
Study Questions
References
Chapter 6: The Temporomandibular Joint
Anatomy Overview
Introduction
Structure and Function of the TM Joint
Structure
Articular Structures
Accessory Joint Structures
Capsule and Ligaments
Function
Joint Kinematics
MANDIBULAR DEPRESSION AND ELEVATION
MANDIBULAR PROTRUSION AND RETRUSION
MANDIBULAR LATERAL EXCURSION
Muscles
PRIMARY MUSCLES
SECONDARY MUSCLES
COORDINATED MUSCLE ACTIONS
Relationship to the Cervical Spine and Posture
Dentition
Life Span and Clinical Considerations
Age-Related Changes in the TM Joint
Clinical Considerations
Respiratory Dysfunction and TM Joint
Inflammatory Conditions
Capsular Fibrosis
Osseous Mobility Conditions
Articular Disc Displacement
Degenerative Conditions
Summary
Study Questions
References
Chapter 7: The Shoulder Complex
Anatomy Overview
Introduction
Shoulder Complex Joints and Structures
Sternoclavicular Joint Structure
Sternoclavicular Articulation
Sternoclavicular Accessory Joint Structures
Sternoclavicular Capsule and Ligaments
Acromioclavicular Joint Structure
Acromioclavicular Articulation
Acromioclavicular Accessory Joint Structures
Acromioclavicular Capsule and Ligaments
Scapulothoracic Joint Structure
Scapulothoracic Articulation
Glenohumeral Joint Structure
Proximal Articular Surface
Distal Articular Surface
Glenohumeral Accessory Structures
Glenohumeral Capsule and Ligaments
Coracoacromial Arch and Bursae
Shoulder Joint Function
Sternoclavicular Motion
Elevation and Depression
Protraction and Retraction
Anterior and Posterior Rotation
Sternoclavicular Stability
Acromioclavicular Kinematics
Internal and External Rotation
Anterior and Posterior Tilting
Upward and Downward Rotation
Acromioclavicular Stability
Scapulothoracic Kinematics
Upward and Downward Rotation
Elevation and Depression
Protraction and Retraction
Internal and External Rotation
Anterior and Posterior Tilting
Scapulothoracic Stability
Glenohumeral Kinematics
Flexion and Extension
Medial and Lateral Rotation
Abduction and Adduction
Intra-Articular Glenohumeral Motion
Static Stabilization of the Glenohumeral Joint in the Dependent Arm
Dynamic Stabilization of the Glenohumeral Joint
The Deltoid and Glenohumeral Stabilization
The Rotator Cuff and Glenohumeral Stabilization
The Supraspinatus and Glenohumeral Stabilization
The Long Head of the Biceps Brachii and Glenohumeral Stabilization
Costs of Dynamic Stabilization of the Glenohumeral Joint
Integrated Function of the Shoulder Complex
Integrated Joint Function
Scapulothoracic and Glenohumeral Function
Sternoclavicular and Acromioclavicular Function
Scapula Motion and Muscle Function
Integrated Shoulder Muscle Function: Elevation
Deltoid
Supraspinatus
Infraspinatus, Teres Minor, and Subscapularis
Trapezius and Serratus Anterior
Rhomboids
Integrated Shoulder Muscle Function: Depression
Latissimus Dorsi and Pectoralis
Teres Major and Rhomboids
Life Span and Clinical Considerations
Life Span Considerations
Structural Dysfunction
Summary
Study Questions
References
Chapter 8: The Elbow Complex
Anatomy Overview
Introduction
Structure and Function of the Humeroulnar and Humeroradial Articulations
Structure
Proximal Joint Surface
Distal Joint Surfaces
Joint Articulations
Joint Capsule
Ligaments
MEDIAL (ULNAR) COLLATERAL LIGAMENT
LATERAL COLLATERAL LIGAMENTOUS COMPLEX
Muscles
Function
Axis of Motion
LONG AXES OF THE HUMERUS AND FOREARM (CARRYING ANGLE OF THE ELBOW)
Mobility and Stability
Muscle Action
FLEXORS
EXTENSORS
Structure and Function of the Proximal and Distal Radioulnar Articulations
Structure
Proximal (Superior) Radioulnar Joint
Distal (Inferior) Radioulnar Joint
Ligaments
Muscles
Function
Radioulnar Axis and Radioulnar Motions
Radioulnar Range of Motion
Muscle Action
Stability
Mobility and Stability of the Elbow Complex
Functional Activities
Relationship to the Hand and Wrist
Life Span and Clinical Considerations
Ossification Centers
Effects of Gender
Effects of Age
Injury
Compression Injuries
Distraction Injuries
Varus/Valgus Injuries
Peripheral Neuropathy
Summary
Study Questions
References
Chapter 9: The Wrist and Hand Complex
Anatomy Overview
Introduction
Structure and Function of the Wrist Complex
Radiocarpal Joint Structure
Proximal and Distal Segments of the Radiocarpal Joint
Radiocarpal Capsule and Ligaments
Midcarpal Joint Structure
Ligaments of the Wrist Complex
VOLAR CARPAL LIGAMENTS
DORSAL CARPAL LIGAMENTS
Function of the Wrist Complex
Movements of the Radiocarpal and Midcarpal Joints
FLEXION/EXTENSION OF THE WRIST
RADIAL/ULNAR DEVIATION OF THE WRIST
Wrist Instability
Muscles of the Wrist Complex
VOLAR WRIST MUSCULATURE
DORSAL WRIST MUSCULATURE
Structure and Function of the Hand Complex
Carpometacarpal Joints of the Fingers
Carpometacarpal Joint Range of Motion
Palmar Arches
Metacarpophalangeal Joints of the Fingers
Volar Plates
Collateral Ligaments
Range of Motion
Interphalangeal Joints of the Fingers
Extrinsic Finger Flexors
Mechanisms of Finger Flexion
Extrinsic Finger Extensors
Extensor Mechanism
Extensor Mechanism Influence on Metacarpophalangeal Joint Function
Extensor Mechanism Influence on Interphalangeal Joint Function
Intrinsic Finger Musculature
Dorsal and Volar Interossei Muscles
ROLE OF THE INTEROSSEI MUSCLES AT THE MCP JOINT IN MCP JOINT EXTENSION
ROLE OF THE INTEROSSEI MUSCLES AT THE MCP JOINT IN MCP JOINT FLEXION
ROLE OF THE INTEROSSEI MUSCLES AT THE IP JOINT IN IP JOINT EXTENSION
Lumbrical Muscles
Structure of the Thumb
Carpometacarpal Joint of the Thumb
FIRST CARPOMETACARPAL JOINT STRUCTURE
FIRST CARPOMETACARPAL JOINT FUNCTION
Metacarpophalangeal and Interphalangeal Joints of the Thumb
Thumb Musculature
Extrinsic Thumb Muscles
Intrinsic Thumb Muscles
Prehension
Power Grip
Cylindrical Grip
Spherical Grip
Hook Grip
Lateral Prehension
Precision Handling
Pad-to-Pad Prehension
Tip-to-Tip Prehension
Pad-to-Side Prehension
Functional Position of the Wrist and Hand
Summary
Study Questions
References
Chapter 10: The Hip Complex
Anatomy Overview
Introduction
Structure and Function of The Hip Joint
Structure
Proximal Articular Surface
ACETABULUM
ACETABULAR LABRUM
Distal Articular Surface
ANGULATION OF THE FEMUR
ANGLE OF INCLINATION OF THE FEMUR
ANGLE OF TORSION OF THE FEMUR
Articular Congruence
Hip Joint Capsule and Ligaments
HIP JOINT CAPSULE
HIP JOINT LIGAMENTS
CAPSULOLIGAMENTOUS TENSION
Structural Adaptations to Weightbearing
Function
Motion of the Femur on the Acetabulum
Motion of the Pelvis on the Femur
ANTERIOR AND POSTERIOR PELVIC TILT
LATERAL PELVIC TILT
LATERAL SHIFT OF THE PELVIS
FORWARD AND BACKWARD PELVIC ROTATION
Coordinated Motions of the Femur, Pelvis, and Lumbar Spine
PELVIFEMORAL MOTION
CLOSED-CHAIN HIP JOINT FUNCTION
Hip Joint Musculature
FLEXORS
ADDUCTORS
EXTENSORS
ABDUCTORS
LATERAL ROTATORS
MEDIAL ROTATORS
Hip Joint Forces and Muscle Function in Stance
Bilateral Stance
Unilateral Stance
Compensatory Lateral Lean of the Trunk
Use of a Cane Ipsilaterally
Use of a Cane Contralaterally
Life Span and Clinical Considerations
Femoroacetabular Impingement
Labral Pathology
Arthrosis
Fracture
Summary
Study Questions
References
Chapter 11: The Knee
Anatomy Overview
Introduction
Tibiofemoral Joint Structure and Function
Structure
Femur
Tibia
Tibiofemoral Alignment and Weightbearing Forces
Menisci
MENISCAL ATTACHMENTS
ROLE OF THE MENISCI
MENISCAL NUTRITION AND INNERVATION
Joint Capsule
SYNOVIAL LAYER OF THE JOINT CAPSULE
FIBROUS LAYER OF THE JOINT CAPSULE
Ligaments
MEDIAL COLLATERAL LIGAMENT
LATERAL COLLATERAL LIGAMENT
ANTERIOR CRUCIATE LIGAMENT
POSTERIOR CRUCIATE LIGAMENT
LIGAMENTS OF THE POSTERIOR CAPSULE
Iliotibial Band
Bursae
Function
Joint Kinematics
FLEXION/EXTENSION
Role of the Cruciate Ligaments and Menisci in Flexion/Extension
Flexion/Extension Range of Motion
MEDIAL/LATERAL ROTATION
VALGUS (ABDUCTION)/VARUS (ADDUCTION)
COUPLED MOTIONS
Muscles
KNEE FLEXOR GROUP
KNEE EXTENSOR GROUP
Stabilizers of the Knee
Patellofemoral Joint
Patellofemoral Articular Surfaces and Joint Congruence
Motions of the Patella
Patellofemoral Joint Stress
Frontal Plane Patellofemoral Joint Stability
Asymmetry of Patellofemoral Stabilization
Weightbearing Versus Non-Weightbearing Exercises With Patellofemoral Pain
Life Span and Clinical Considerations
Tibiofemoral Joint Injury
Patellofemoral Joint Injury
Summary
Study Questions
References
Chapter 12: The Ankle and Foot Complex
Anatomy Overview
Introduction
Definitions of Motion
Joint Structure
The Ankle Joint
Proximal Articular Surfaces
Proximal Tibiofibular Joint
Distal Tibiofibular Joint
Distal Articular Surface
Capsule and Ligaments
The Subtalar Joint
Ligaments
Transverse Tarsal Joint
Talonavicular Joint
Calcaneocuboid Joint
Tarsometatarsal Joints
Metatarsophalangeal Joints
Interphalangeal Joints
Joint Function
The Ankle Joint
Talocrural Axis
The Subtalar Joint
The Subtalar Axis
Non-Weightbearing Subtalar Joint Motion
Weightbearing Subtalar Joint Motion
WEIGHTBEARING SUBTALAR JOINT MOTION AND ITS EFFECT ON THE LEG
Range of Subtalar Motion and Subtalar Neutral
Transverse Tarsal Joint
Transverse Tarsal Joint Axes
Weightbearing Rearfoot Pronation and Transverse Tarsal Joint Motion
Weightbearing Rearfoot Supination and Transverse Tarsal Joint Motion
Tarsometatarsal Joints
Tarsometatarsal Axes
Supination Twist
Pronation Twist
Metatarsophalangeal Joints
Metatarsophalangeal Extension and the Metatarsal Break
Metatarsophalangeal Flexion, Abduction, and Adduction
Plantar Arches
Structure of the Arches
Function of the Arches
Plantar Aponeurosis
Weight Distribution
Muscular Contribution to the Arches
Muscles of the Ankle and Foot
Extrinsic Musculature
Posterior Compartment Muscles
Lateral Compartment Muscles
Anterior Compartment Muscles
Intrinsic Musculature
Life Span and Clinical Considerations
Foot and Ankle Problems Revisited
Summary
Study Questions
References
Chapter 13: Posture
Introduction
Posture and Balance Defined
Posture
Balance
The Role of Sensorimotor Motor Control in Posture and Balance
Control of Posture in Static Positions
Postural Control Strategies
Supported and Unsupported Upright Sitting
Control of Posture During Movement
Kinetics and Kinematics of Posture and Postural Control
Ground Reaction Forces
External and Internal Moments
Role of Postural Assessment/Initial Alignment in Physical Therapy
Ideal Standing Alignment
Analysis of Standing Posture
Analysis of Standing Posture: Side View
Head
Vertebral Column
Pelvis and Hip
Knee
Ankle
Analysis of Standing Posture: Frontal Plane
Ideal Sitting Postures
Common Deviations from Ideal Alignment
The Role of Pain
Scoliosis
Spinal Abnormalities
Shoulder Girdle
Lumbopelvic and Hip Abnormalities
Knee
Ankle, Feet, and Toes
Neurological Conditions That Influence Posture
Postural Changes Across the Life Span
Adults and Older Adults
Pregnancy
Dynamic Postural Changes: Kinematics and Kinetics
Sit to Stand
Lunging
Jumping
Summary
Study Questions
References
Chapter 14: Gait
Introduction
Gait Analysis
Major Tasks of Gait
Phases of the Gait Cycle
Events in Stance Phase
Subphases of Stance Phase
Swing Phase
Gait Terminology
Time and Distance Terms
Temporal Variables
Distance Variables
Kinematic Terms
Kinetic Terms
Electromyography
Characteristics of Normal Gait
Time and Distance Characteristics
Sagittal Plane Joint Angles
Frontal Plane Joint Angles
Ground Reaction Force and Center of Pressure
Sagittal Plane Moments
Frontal Plane Moments
Sagittal Plane Powers
Frontal Plane Powers
Muscle Activity
Gait Initiation and Termination
Trunk and Upper Extremities
Trunk
Upper Extremities
Treadmill, Stair, and Running Gaits
Treadmill Gait
Stair Gait
Running Gait
Joint Motion and Muscle Activity During Running
JOINT MOTION
MUSCLE ACTIVITY
Moments and Powers During Running
Effects of Age and Sex On Gait
Age
Sex
Abnormal Gait
Structural Impairment
Functional Impairment
Pain
Treatment of Gait Disorders
Assistive Devices
Orthoses
Gait Retraining
Summary
Study Questions
References