Human Factors in Simulation and Training: Theory and Methods; Second Edition
Cover
Half Title
Human Factors in Simulation and Training: Theory and Methods; Second Edition
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
Editors
Contributors
Chapter 1 Human Factors in Simulation and Training: An Overview
Introduction
Simulation: The Perfect Storm
Human Factors in Simulation and Training: A Brief History
Why Simulate?
Simulation versus Modeling
The Modeling and Simulation Process: Verification, Validation, and Accreditation
Advantages and Disadvantages of Simulation
Advantages
Cost-Effectiveness
Availability
Safety
Surrogate Value
Reduced Environmental Impact
Improved Training Environment
Standardized Training Environments
Provide Data
Lack of Realism
Disadvantages of Simulation
Does Not Necessarily Reflect Real-World Performance
Surrogate Value
User Acceptance
A Sampling of Progress in Simulation
War-Gaming
Online Gaming
Aviation
Extended Reality: Augmented Reality, Virtual Reality, and Mixed Reality
Introduction to XR
Historical VR Devices
XR Applications in Training
VR in Medical Training
AR in Medical Training
AR in DoD Tactical Combat Casualty Care
VR Flight Training Devices
MR Flight Training Device
AR Trainer for H-60R Preflight Procedures
XR Applications in Operational Support
AR in Army Tactical Operations
VR in Operational Medicine
AR in Operational Medicine
AR for Aircraft Maintainers
Future Directions
XR HMD Enhancements
AR for Red Air
VR for Spatial Disorientation Training
Pilot Training Next (PTN) and Naval Aviation Training Next (NATN)
Challenges to the Adoption of XR Technology
XR Device Visual Fidelity
User Fatigue
Integration
User Resistance
Safety
Regulations
XR Is Not Always the Optimal Training Solution
Augmented Reality in Decision-Making
The Perfect Storm Revisited: The Future of Human Factors in Simulation and Training
Technological Trends
Computation Power
Innovations in Education and Training
The Changing Nature of Education
Acceptance of Simulation/Gaming
Acknowledgments
Disclaimer
References
Chapter 2 Justification for Use of Simulation
Introduction
Purposes
Training
Systems Engineering Evaluation
Research
Recreation
Domains of Application
Aviation
Military
Medical
Driving
Emergency Response
Education and STEM
Entertainment
Maintenance
Achievable Outcomes
Cost Benefit
Safety
Data
Intervention
Flexibility and Availability
Realism
Conclusion
References
Chapter 3 Simulation Fidelity
Introduction
Definition of Fidelity
Physical Fidelity
Visual–Audio Fidelity
Equipment Fidelity
Motion Fidelity
Psychological–Cognitive Fidelity
Other Fidelity
Measuring Fidelity
The Mathematical Model
Subjective Methods
Fidelity Evaluation Frameworks
Fidelity and Transfer of Training
Summary
References
Chapter 4 Transfer of Training
Introduction
Transfer of Training: Terms and Concepts
Positive Transfer
Negative Transfer
Near Transfer
Far Transfer
A Model of Factors Affecting the Transfer of Training
Training Input Factors
Training Outputs
Conditions of Transfer
Dynamic Models of Training Transfer
Research Methods
Transfer of Training Performance Measurement
Objective Measures
Subjective Measures
Selecting Performance Measures
Using Performance Measures to Indicate Transfer
Experimental Design
Forward Transfer Study
Backward Transfer Study
Quasi-Experimental Study
Curve-Fitting Method
Summary
References
Chapter 5 Simulation-Based Training for Decision-Making: Providing a Guide to Develop Training Based on Decision-Making Theories
Theoretical Background of Decision-Making
Normative Decision Models
Decision Models: New Perspectives
Naturalistic Decision-Making (NDM) Framework and Recognition-Primed Decision (RPD) Model
Biases in Decision-Making
Confirmation
Over- and Under-Confidence
Framing
Probability Perception (Gambler’s Fallacy)
Sunk Costs
Decision Theory Applied to Training
Steps in Developing Simulations to Train Decision-Making
Conduct a Needs Assessment
Identify Learning Objectives
Set the Simulation Context
Establish KSAs
Create Events to Elicit KSAs
Establish an Assessment Plan
Conclusion
References
Chapter 6 Almost Like the Real Thing – The Hidden Limits in Flight Simulation and Training
Introduction
Introduction to Simulator Motion
How Do Humans Perceive Motion Drive?
Let Them Eat Humble Pie—Or Not?
Same, Same But Different
Fiddling with Fidelity While Missing the Story
A Perfect Tool or a Tool That Can Be Perfected?
Summary
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 7 Cybersickness in Immersive Training Environments
Introduction
Cybersickness Background
Individual Susceptibility and Stimulus Intensity
Quantifying Immersive Stimulus Intensity
Usage Protocol
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 8 Distributed Debriefing for Simulation-Based Training
Introduction
Issues to Consider in Providing Distributed Debriefing for Simulation-Based Training
The Rest of This Chapter
Debriefing Functions and Methods
Functions of Debriefs
Methods of Debriefs
Challenges of Distributed Debriefs
Performance Diagnosis
Performance Recall, Comparison, and Extrapolation
Assessment and Display of Competence
Requirements for Distributed Debriefs
Communication
Collaboration
Automated Data Capture
Data Presentation
Data Selection
Replay Perspective
Expert Models of Performance
Flexible Delivery Style
Post-Exercise Review
Store Lessons Learned
Scalable
Ease of Use
Current Techniques for Debriefing Distributed Teams
State of the Art in Distributed Debriefing
Large-Scale Distributed Simulation Training Exercises
Small-Scale Distributed Simulation Training Exercises
Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 9 Performance Assessment in Simulation
Subjective Methods of Performance Measurement
Purpose of Performance Measures
Special Properties of Performance Measures in Simulators
Defining and Assessing Reliability
Data Requirements
Qualitative versus Quantitative
A Qualitative Index
Quantitative Indices
Special Problems with Simulators
The Gouge
Instructor Attitudes
Objective Methods of Performance Measurement
Automated Data Collection Systems
Flight Technical Error
Deviation-Based Metrics
Root Mean Square Error (RMSE)
Number of Deviations and Time-Outside Standard
Time within FAA Practical Test Standard
Non-FTE Measures
Rates of Change
Control Input
Summary
Note
References
Chapter 10 Performance Measurement Issues and Guidelines for Adaptive, Simulation-Based Training
Introduction
Research Advances
Adaptive SBT Implementation
A Confirmatory Performance Measurement Framework for Adaptive SBT
Dimensions and Essential Characteristics of Performance Measures
Validity
Criterion Relevance
Reliability
Measure Invariance
Objectivity and Intrusiveness
Diagnosticity
Measurement Principles for Adaptive Training
Principle 1: Ensure that Performance Measure Development Is Guided by Sound Theory
Principle 2: Consider and Exploit Measurement Affordances
Principle 3: Ensure Usefulness of Measures for Evaluating Training Effectiveness
Summary and Conclusions
References
Chapter 11 Scoring Simulations with Artificial Intelligence
Artificial Intelligence and Reproducing Expert Ratings
Traditional Approach to Scoring Open-Ended Content: Rater Training
The Architecture
The Data
Output
Other Considerations
Scoring Actions in Simulated Environments
Traditional Approaches to Scoring Simulations
Data Representations for Modeling Simulations
Machine Learning Methods for Scoring Simulations
Static Methods Using Summarized Representations
Time Series Methods
Applications
Trainee Feedback
Early Prediction
Real-Time Feedback
Adaptive Simulations
Conclusion
References
Chapter 12 Dissecting the Neurodynamics of the Pauses and Uncertainties of Healthcare Teams
Introduction
The Significance of Structure in EEG Amplitudes
Neurodynamic Correlates of Uncertainty
Estimating the Frequency Magnitude and Duration of Uncertainty
Augmenting Debriefings with Neurodynamics
Using Neurodynamic Analyses to Train the Trainers
Early Novices
Later Novices
Evolving the Technology
Summary
References
Chapter 13 The Future of Simulation
Proem
The Fundamental and Practical Reasons for Simulation
Simulations in the Past
On Predicting the Future
The Practicalities of Simulation
Simulation and Training
Discourse between Two Worlds
Hybrid Simulation Worlds
Assessing the Progress of Simulation Technologies
The Turing Test of Simulation
Supersimulation
The Moral Dimension of Simulation
A Philosophical Valediction
Summary and Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Appendix A: Glossary of Modeling Terms
Appendix B: Glossary of Simulation Terms
Appendix C: Glossary of Verification, Validation, and Accreditation Terms
Index
Human Factors in Simulation and Training: Application and Practice: Second Edition
Cover
Half Title
Human Factors in Simulation and Training: Application and Practice: Second Edition
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
Editors
Contributors
Chapter 1 Controls and Displays for Aviation Research Simulation: A Historical Review
Disclaimer
Introduction
Fixed-Based Simulators
Integrated Information Presentation and Control System Study (IIPACSS) Simulator, Boeing, Seattle, WA
Display Technology
Control Technology
Representative Research
Impact
Digital Synthesis (DIGISYN) Simulator
Display Technology
Control Technology
Representative Research
Impact
Microprocessor Applications for Graphics and Interactive Communication (MAGIC) Simulator
Display Technology
Control Technology
Representative Research
Impact
Panoramic Cockpit Control and Display System (PCCADS) Simulator
Display Technology
Control Technology
Representative Research
Impact
Helmet-Mounted Oculometer Facility (HMOF) Simulator
Display Technology
Control Technology
Eye and Head Monitor
Representative Research
Impact
Synthetic Interface Research for UAV Systems (SIRUS) Simulator
Display Technology
Control Technology
Representative Research
Impact
Vigilant Spirit Control Station (VSCS) Simulator
Display Technology
Controls Technology
Representative Research
Sense and Avoid (SAA) Display Symbology Evaluation
Cyber Threat Information Requirements Investigation for UAV Crews
Impact
Intelligent Multi-Unmanned Vehicle Planner with Adaptive Collaborative/Control Technologies (IMPACT) Simulator
Display Technology
Control Technology
Representative Research
Impact
Motion-Based Simulators
Dynamic Environmental Simulator (DES)
Display Technology
Control Technology
Representative Research
Impact
Disorientation Research Device
Display Technology
Control Technology
Representative Research
Impact
In-Flight Simulators
NASA’s OV-10
Representative Research
Impact
Total In-Flight Simulator (TIFS) NC-131H Transport Aircraft
Representative Research
Impact
Variable In-Flight Stability Test Aircraft (VISTA) Lockheed NF-16D Fighter Aircraft
Representative Research
Impact
University of Iowa Operator Performance Laboratory Aero L-29 Delfin Jet
Representative Research
Impact
Multisensory Displays and Controls
Displays and Controls to Support Human–Machine Teaming
Summary
Acknowledgment
References
Acronyms/Abbreviations
Chapter 2 Augmented Reality as a Means of Job Task Training in Aviation
Augmented Reality (AR)
Historical Overview: AR and Training
Cognition and AR
Elaboration and Recall
Spatial Relations
Memory Channels and AR
Knowledge Development and Training Transfer
What Is the Future of Job Training – Training on the Job Literally?
Conclusion
References
Chapter 3 Civil Aviation: Flight Simulators and Training
Introduction
An Overview of Civil Aviation Training, Flight Simulators, and the Human Factors Therein
Introduction
Flight Simulator Basics
Human Factors and Flight Simulators
Major Drivers in Civil Aviation Pilot/Crew Training
Flight Simulators and Flight Training Devices
Overview
Flight Simulators and Training
Flight Training Devices and Training
Flight Simulator and FTD Assessment
SFAR 58, AND AQP
History
SFAR/AQP: Overview and Synopsis
SFAR 58
AQP, LOS/LOFT, and Simulators
Line-Oriented Flight Training (LOFT)
Background
Maximizing LOFT: The Mission Performance Model and the Operational Decision-Making Paradigm
LOFT: Current and Future
Risk Identification and Management: Training and Evaluation with MPM and ODM Paradigm
Mission Performance Model
From CRM/MPM to ODM
Operational Risk Management and Decision-Making
Optimizing Performance during Complex Operations
Introduction
The Overall Mission Continuation Decision
Determining Risk
Operational Envelope
The Unstable, Missed Approach Decision
Bayesian Probability
Problem-Solving under Conditions of Uncertainty
The Takeoff “Go/No-Go” Decision
Unexpected Operational Difficulties
Optimizing the Decision Function
Operational Analysis of the Takeoff Decision
Conclusion
ODM and MPM in LOFT Design, Development, and Evaluation
Introduction
LOF: DOM and MRM
LOFT Design: Another Approach
Training
References
Federal Aviation Administration Advisory Circulars (Ac) and Regulations
Chapter 4 Integrating Effective Training and Research Objectives: Lessons from the Black Skies Series of Exercises
Introduction
The Black Skies Exercises
Outcomes for Military Operators
Performance Benefits and Transfer
Auxiliary Benefits
Research on Team Coordination Dynamics
Communication Dynamics
Physiological Dynamics
Combining Communication with Physiological Data
Operator Acceptance of Physiological Monitoring
Evaluation of Training Capability
Summary and Conclusion
Acknowledgements and Dedication
References
Chapter 5 Extended Reality in Training Environments: A Human Factors Trend Analysis
Background
Methodological Approach
Results
Study Designs over Time
Simulation Domains over Time
Simulation Cluster Areas over Time
Military Simulation
Aerospace Simulation
Driving Simulation
Healthcare Simulation
Manufacturing Simulation
Entertainment Simulation
Simulation Methods and Design
General Simulation Areas
Military Cluster Areas over Time
Author Affiliations over Time
Military Author Affiliations over Time
Funding Agencies over Time
Military and Government Funding over Time
XR System Types over Time
XR Systems’ Breakdown over Time
Physiological Recording Systems over Time
Conclusions
Major Conclusions and Recommendations
References
Chapter 6 Mitigation of Motion Sickness Symptoms by Adaptive Perceptual Learning: Implications for Space and Cyber Environments
Motion Symptoms
Mitigation
Individual Differences in Adaptation
The Long-Term Retention, Conditioning, and Transfer of Adaptation
Long-Lasting Adaptation
Generalizability
Adaptive Perceptual Learning (APL) Training
Pre-Adaptation on VR
Pre-Adaptation on Vection Drum
Pre-Adaptation on VIMS
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
In Honorem
References
Chapter 7 Decision-Making under Crisis Conditions: A Training and Simulation Perspective
Introduction
Effects of Time Stress and Uncertainty on Decision-Making
Other Effects on Human Decision Makers under Crisis Conditions
Decision-Making Theories
Decision-Making Performance Measures
Crisis Decision-Making Training
General and Stress Training
Simulation
Microworld
Conclusion
References
Chapter 8 Healthcare Simulation and Training
Introduction
Benefits of Simulation in Healthcare
Drawbacks of Simulation in Healthcare
Dimensions of Simulation
History of Medical Simulation
Mannequins
Virtual Reality Systems
Surgical Systems
Collaborative and Immersive Training Systems
Standardized Patients
Hybrid Systems
Training
Team Training
Benefits
History and Scope of Team Training in Healthcare
Training Transfer
Healthcare Simulation and the Pandemic
Conclusion
References
Chapter 9 Best Practices in Surgical Simulation
Introduction
Current Technologies Used in Surgical Simulation for Skills Training
Technical Skills Simulation
Low-Cost Simulators
High-Cost Simulators
Nontechnical Skills Simulation
The Objective Structured Clinical Examination (OSCE)
Team-Based Training
Application of Simulation across the Continuum of Surgical Training
Undergraduate Medical Education
Graduate Medical Education
Postgraduate Training of Practicing Surgeons
Human Factors and Surgical Simulation
Equipment Design and Ergonomics
Performance Optimization
Mental Skills Optimization and Coaching
Developing Expertise
Surgical Team Dynamics
Utilizing Simulation to Minimize Subjectivity in Assessment
Future of Simulation and Human Factors in Surgery
Conclusion
References
Chapter 10 Healthcare Simulation Methods: A Multifaceted Approach
Introduction
What is Healthcare Simulation?
Concepts in Healthcare Simulation
Simulation Fidelity
Psychological Safety
Locations and Modes of Healthcare Simulation
Applications of Healthcare Simulation
Simulation for Practice and Learning
Simulations with Reflective Debriefing
Rapid Cycle Deliberate Practice
Mastery Learning
Just-in-Time Training
Choice of Training Type
Simulation for Evaluation and Testing
Systems Testing
Conclusion and Future Directions
References
Chapter 11 Design and Development of Algorithms for Gesture-Based Control of Semi-Autonomous Vehicles
Introduction
Background
Gestures and Gesture Capture Technology
Cognitive Loading Considerations
Approach, Implementation, and Results
Approach
Developing Proper Training System Familiarization as a Prelude to Training
Implementation and Results: Phase 1
Gestures and LMC Measurements
Virtual Environment Development
User Testing
Algorithm Redesign
Implementation and Results: Phase 2
Physical Demonstration Setup
User Testing
Summary and Conclusions
References
Chapter 12 The Influence of New Realities: How Virtual, Augmented, and Mixed Reality Advance Training Methods in Aviation
Introduction
Virtual, Mixed, and Augmented Reality as We See It … or Don’t
The Growth of Technology in Aviation Training
Use of AR, MR, and VR in the Aviation Field
The Shortage and the Future
Benefits, Drawbacks, and Resolutions
Conclusion
References
Chapter 13 Training, Stress, Time Pressure, and Surprise: An Accident Case Study
Introduction and Background
Training and System Design
An Accident Case Study: Colgan Air Flight 3407
Why Didn’t Previous Training Prevent This Accident?
Opportunities for Better Outcomes
Training: A Countermeasure for Responding to Startle and Surprise
Automation Design: Keeping the Human in the Loop Where Feasible
Highlighting the Lessons Learned
References
Index