Fundamentals of Process Safety Engineering

✍ Scribed by Samarendra Kumar Biswas, Umesh Mathur, Swapan Kumar Hazra

• Publisher: CRC Press
• Year: 2021
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 499
• Edition: 1
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

This textbook covers the essential aspects of process safety engineering in a practical and comprehensive manner.

It provides readers with an understanding of process safety hazards in the refining and petrochemical industries and how to manage them in a reliable and professional manner. It covers the most important concepts: static electricity, intensity of thermal radiation, thermodynamics of fluid phase equilibria, boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE), emission source models, hazard identification methods, risk control and methods for achieving manufacturing excellence while also focusing on safety. Extensive case studies are included.

Aimed at senior undergraduate and graduate chemical engineering students and practicing engineers, this book covers process safety principles and engineering practice authoritatively, with comprehensive examples:

• Fundamentals, methods, and procedures for the industrial practice of process safety engineering.
• The thermodynamic fundamentals and computational methods for release rates from ruptures in pipelines, vessels, and relief valves.
• Fundamentals of static electricity hazards and their mitigation.
• Quantitative assessment of fires and explosions.
• Principles of dispersion calculations for toxic or flammable gases and vapors.
• Methods of qualitative and quantitative risk assessment and control.

 

✦ Table of Contents

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
List of Figures
List of Tables
Acronyms and Abbreviations
Authors
Chapter 1 Hazards in the Process Industries
1.1 Chemical Hazards
1.1.1 Flammable Chemicals
1.1.2 Explosive Chemicals
1.1.3 Reactive Chemicals
1.1.4 Toxic Chemicals
1.2 Physical Hazards
1.2.1 Physical Explosion
1.2.2 Electrostatic Charges
1.2.3 Rollover/Boilover of Liquids
1.3 Environmental Hazards
1.3.1 Air Pollutants
1.3.2 Water Pollutants
1.3.3 Solid Wastes
1.4 Other Hazards
1.4.1 Electricity
1.4.2 Hazards in Maintenance Work
1.5 Classification Categories and Labeling of Hazardous Chemicals
1.5.1 Globally Harmonized System (GHS)
1.5.2 Adoption of GHS by Countries
1.6 Provision of Hazard Information
1.6.1 Safety Data Sheets (SDS)
Reference
Chapter 2 Overview of Some Major Accidents in the World
2.1 Cleveland, Ohio
2.1.1 Brief Description of Facility and Process
2.1.2 The Accident
2.1.3 Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences
2.1.4 Lessons/Recommendations
2.2 Feyzin, France
2.2.1 Brief Description of Facility and Process
2.2.2 The Accident
2.2.3 Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences
2.2.4 Lessons/Recommendations
2.3 Flixborough, UK
2.3.1 Brief Description of Facility and Process
2.3.2 The Accident
2.3.3 Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences
2.3.4 Lessons/Recommendations
2.4 Seveso, Italy
2.4.1 Brief Description of Facility and Process
2.4.2 The Accident
2.4.3 Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences
2.4.4 Lessons/Recommendations
2.5 Qatar, Persian Gulf
2.5.1 Brief Description of Facility and Process
2.5.2 The Accident
2.5.3 Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences
2.5.4 Lessons/Recommendations
2.6 Caracas, Venezuela
2.6.1 Brief Description of Facilities and Process
2.6.2 The Accident
2.6.3 Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences
2.6.4 Lessons/Recommendations
2.7 Mexico City
2.7.1 Brief Description of Facility and Process
2.7.2 The Accident
2.7.3 Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences
2.7.4 Lessons/Recommendations
2.8 Bhopal, India
2.8.1 Brief Description of Facilities and Process
2.8.2 The Accident
2.8.3 Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences
2.8.4 Lessons/Recommendations
2.9 Offshore Oil Rig Piper Alpha, North Sea
2.9.1 Brief Description of Facility and Process
2.9.2 The Accident
2.9.3 Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences
2.9.4 Lessons/Recommendations
2.10 Bharat Petroleum Refinery, Bombay, India
2.10.1 Description of Facility and Process
2.10.2 The Accident
2.10.3 Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences
2.10.4 Lessons/Recommendations
2.11 Petrochemical Complex, Phillips Petroleum, Pasadena, USA
2.11.1 Brief Description of Facility and Processes
2.11.2 The Accident
2.11.3 Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences
2.11.4 Lessons/Recommendations
2.12 LPG Import Terminal Hindustan Petroleum, Vishakhapatnam, India
2.12.1 Brief Description of the Facility and the Process
2.12.2 The Accident
2.12.3 Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences
2.12.4 Lessons/Recommendations
2.13 Grande Paroisse, Ammonium Nitrate Facility Toulouse, France
2.13.1 Brief Description of Facility and Process
2.13.2 The Accident
2.13.3 Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences of the Accident
2.13.4 Lessons/Recommendations
2.14 Space Shuttle Columbia, NASA Florida
2.14.1 Brief Description of Space Program and the Shuttle
2.14.2 The Accident
2.14.3 Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences
2.14.4 Lessons/Recommendations
2.15 LNG Liquefaction Facility, Skikda, Algeria
2.15.1 Brief Description of Facility and the Process
2.15.2 The Accident
2.15.3 Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences
2.15.4 Lessons/Recommendations
2.16 BP Refinery, Texas City, Texas, USA
2.16.1 Brief Description of Facility and Process
2.16.2 The Accident
2.16.3 Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences of the Accident
2.16.4 Lessons/Recommendations
2.17 Imperial Sugar, Port Wentworth, Georgia, USA
2.17.1 Brief Description of Facility and Process
2.17.2 The Accident
2.17.3 Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences
2.17.4 Lessons/Recommendations
2.18 Indian Oil Corporation Product Tank Farm, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
2.18.1 Description of Facility and Process
2.18.2 The Accident
2.18.3 Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences
2.18.4 Lessons/Recommendations
2.19 BP Deepwater Horizon Offshore Rig
2.19.1 Description of Facility and Process
2.19.2 The Accident
2.19.3 Causes, Circumstances, and Consequences
2.19.4 Lessons/Recommendations
2.20 Summary and Conclusions
References
Chapter 3 Fundamentals of Fire Processes
3.1 How Fire Starts
3.1.1 Flammability Limits
3.1.1.1 Pure Fuels
3.1.1.2 Dependence of LFL and UFL on Pressure and Temperature
3.1.1.3 Mixture of Fuels in Air
3.1.1.4 Flammability Range in Oxygen
3.1.1.5 Effect of Addition of Inert Gases
3.1.2 Flash Point
3.1.3 Fire Point
3.2 Heat Balance in Flames
3.3 Types of Flames
3.3.1 Premixed and Diffusion Flames
3.3.2 Pool Fire
3.3.3 Jet Fire
3.3.4 Vapor Cloud Fire
3.3.5 Fireball
3.4 Ignition
3.4.1 Requirements and Characteristics of Ignition Sources
3.4.2 Hot Work
3.4.3 Electrical Equipment
3.4.4 Static Electricity
3.5 Effect of Thermal Radiation
3.5.1 Effect on the Human Body
3.5.2 Effect on Plant and Machinery
3.6 Fire Prevention Systems
3.6.1 Good Housekeeping
3.6.2 Control of Flammable Materials
3.6.3 Control of Sources of Ignition
3.6.4 Fire Hazards Awareness
3.6.5 Monitoring
3.7 Fire Protection Systems
3.7.1 Passive Fire Protection
3.7.2 Active Fire Protection
3.7.2.1 Detection of Flammable Material
3.7.2.2 Detection of Fire
3.7.2.3 Cooling by Water
3.7.2.4 Fire Extinguishing
3.7.2.5 Fire fighting Plan
References
Chapter 4 Static Electricity
4.1 Historical Background of Static Electricity
4.2 Basic Concepts of Static Electricity
4.3 Conductors and Insulators
4.3.1 Liquids
4.3.2 Solids
4.4 Generation of Electrostatic Charge
4.4.1 Mechanisms of Charge Generation
4.4.1.1 Relative Movement at Material Interfaces
4.4.1.2 Induction
4.4.1.3 Charge Transfer
4.4.2 Quantitative Relationships for Charge Generation
4.4.2.1 Charge Generation on Liquids
4.4.2.2 Charge Generation in Powders
4.5 Accumulation of Electrostatic Charge
4.5.1 Accumulation in Liquids
4.5.2 Accumulation on Insulated Conductors
4.5.3 Accumulation on Lined/Coated Containers
4.5.4 Accumulation on Powders
4.6 Electrostatic Discharge
4.6.1 Spark Discharge
4.6.2 Corona Discharge
4.6.3 Brush Discharge
4.6.4 Propagating Brush Discharge
4.6.5 Bulking Brush Discharge
4.7 Ignition of Flammable Vapors and Dusts by Electrostatic Discharge
4.7.1 Hybrid Mixtures
4.8 Hazards from People and Clothing
4.9 Earthing and Bonding
4.10 Examples of Static Ignition
4.10.1 Draining Flammable Liquids into Buckets
4.10.2 Removing Synthetic Clothing from Body
4.10.3 Charging High-Resistivity Flakes/Powders
4.10.4 Filling Polyethylene Granules into a Silo
4.11 Summary of Common Precautionary Measures for Static Hazards
References
Chapter 5 Pool Fire
5.1 Size and Shape of Flames
5.1.1 Confined Pool Fire on Land
5.1.1.1 Pool Diameter
5.1.1.2 Burning Rate
5.1.1.3 Flame Height
5.1.2 Unconfined Pool Fire on Land
5.1.3 Pool Fire on Water
5.1.4 Tank Fire
5.2 Modeling for Radiation Intensity
5.2.1 Surface Emissive Power of Flames
5.2.2 View Factor between a Flame and a Target
5.2.2.1 Case 1: Pool Fire and Target at Ground Level
5.2.2.2 Case 2: Tank Fire with Target at Ground Level/Elevated Position
5.2.3 Atmospheric Transmissivity
5.2.4 Assessment of Safety Distance
References
Chapter 6 Jet Fire
6.1 Flow through a Hole (Free Expansion)
6.1.1 Theoretical Basis
6.1.2 Compressibility Factor and Enthalpy for Real Gases
6.1.3 Release Rate Calculation
6.1.3.1 Bernoulli’s Equation
6.1.3.2 Sonic Velocity
6.1.3.3 C[sub(p)], C[sub(v)], and γ = C[sub(p)]/C[sub(v)] Ratio
6.1.3.4 Density
6.1.3.5 Velocity
6.1.4 Additional Examples
6.1.5 Flashing of Liquids
6.1.6 Flashing of Pure Components
6.2 Thermodynamics of Fluid Phase Equilibria
6.2.1 Phase Equilibria in Hydrocarbon Mixtures
6.2.2 Phase Equilibria in Chemical Mixtures
6.2.3 Flash Calculations for Mixtures
6.2.4 Laboratory Measurements Versus Estimation Methods in Phase Equilibria
6.2.5 Commercial Process Simulators
6.2.6 Release of a LiquefiedGas: Two-Phase Flashing Flow
6.2.7 Concluding Remarks for Release Rate Calculations
6.3 Calculations for Jet Fires
6.3.1 Size and Shape of Flames
6.3.1.1 Hawthorn, Weddell, and Hottel Model
6.3.1.2 API Model
6.3.1.3 Shell Model
6.4 Estimation of Radiation Intensity
6.4.1 Fractional Radiation
6.4.2 Radiation Intensity by the API method
6.4.3 Radiation Intensity by the Shell Method
References
Chapter 7 Vapor Cloud Fire
7.1 Flash Fire Accidents and Experiments
7.2 Flame Speed
7.2.1 Premixed Flame
7.2.2 Nonpremixed Flame
7.3 Flame Dimensions
7.4 Effect of Flame Exposure
References
Chapter 8 Fireball
8.1 BLEVE
8.2 Diameter and Duration of Fireball
8.3 Intensity of Thermal Radiation
8.3.1 Fractional Radiation
8.3.2 Surface Emissive Power
8.3.3 View Factor
8.3.4 Atmospheric Transmissivity
8.4 Measures to Prevent BLEVE
8.4.1 Cooling the Vessel by Water Deluge or Spray
8.4.2 Insulation of the Vessel
8.4.3 Providing an Earth Mound around the Vessel
8.5 Measures in Case of Imminent BLEVE
References
Chapter 9 Explosion
9.1 Kinds and Types of Explosions
9.2 Explosion Mechanisms
9.2.1 Deflagration
9.2.2 Detonation
9.2.3 DDT
9.3 VCE
9.3.1 TNT Equivalent Model
9.3.2 TNO Correlation Model
9.3.3 TNO Multienergy Model
9.3.4 Baker-Strehlow-Tang (BST) Method
9.3.5 Congestion Assessment Method
9.3.6 CFD Models
9.3.6.1 FLACS (FLame ACceleration Simulator)
9.3.6.2 EXSIM[sup(™)] (EXplosion SIMulator)
9.3.6.3 AutoReaGas Model
9.3.7 Comparison of Various Models
9.3.8 Precautionary Measures to Prevent and Minimize Damage in VCEs
9.3.9 Damage Caused by VCE
9.3.9.1 Damage to Structures – TNO
9.3.9.2 Damage to Structures – Major Hazard Assessment Panel (IChemE, U.K.)
9.3.9.3 Damage to Storage Tanks – TNO
9.3.9.4 Effect on People – Major Hazard Assessment Panel (IChemE U.K.)
9.4 Condensed Phase Explosion
9.4.1 Precautionary Measures to Minimize Damage in Condensed Phase Explosion
9.4.2 Formation of Explosive Mixture – Ammonium Nitrate (AN)
9.4.3 Effect of Mechanical or Electrical Shock
9.5 Explosions in a Chemical Reactor
9.6 Dust Explosion
9.7 Physical Explosion
References
Chapter 10 Toxic Releases
10.1 Process Safety Concerns – Acute Effects/Emergency Exposure Limits
10.1.1 Emergency Response Planning Guidelines
10.1.2 Toxic Endpoints
10.1.3 Acute Exposure Guideline Levels
10.1.3.1 Level 1
10.1.3.2 Level 2
10.1.3.3 Level 3
10.2 Occupational Safety Concerns – Toxicity Measures and Assessment
10.2.1 Median Lethal Dose (LD[sub(50)])
10.2.2 Median Lethal Concentration (LC[sub(50)])
10.2.2.1 Toxic Load
10.2.3 Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health
10.3 Regulatory Controls
10.3.1 Occupational Exposure Standards
10.4 Emergency Planning
References
Chapter 11 Dispersion of Gases and Vapors
11.1 Purpose of Dispersion Studies
11.2 Emission Source Models
11.2.1 Liquid Releases
11.2.2 Gas Jet Releases
11.2.3 Two-Phase Releases
11.2.4 Evaporation from Liquid Pools
11.2.4.1 Evaporation of Cryogenic Liquids
11.2.4.2 Evaporation of High Boiling Liquids
11.3 Dispersion Models
11.3.1 Passive Dispersion
11.3.1.1 Factors Affecting Passive Dispersion
11.3.1.2 Dispersion Calculations
11.3.2 Dense Gas Dispersion
11.3.3 Jet Dispersion
11.3.3.1 Dense Gas Jet Dispersion
11.3.3.2 Positively Buoyant Jet Dispersion
11.4 Computational Fluid Dynamics Modelling
References
Chapter 12 Hazard Identification
12.1 Framework for Hazard Management
12.2 Hazard Identification Methods
12.2.1 Safety Audit
12.2.2 What-If Checklist
12.2.3 HAZOP Study
12.2.3.1 Basic Concepts of the Study
12.2.3.2 Study Procedure
12.2.4 Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA)
12.2.5 Fault Tree and Event Tree Analysis
12.3 Comments on Choice of the Method
References
Chapter 13 Risk Assessment and Control
13.1 Methods of Expressing Risks
13.1.1 Fatal Accident Rate
13.1.2 Individual Risk
13.1.3 Average Individual Risk
13.1.4 Societal Risk
13.2 Layer of Protection Analysis
13.2.1 LOPA Process
13.2.2 Select Criteria for Consequence Screening
13.2.3 Select Consequence Analysis Scenarios for LOPA
13.2.4. Identify Initiating Events and Frequencies
13.2.5 Identify IPLs
13.2.6 Risk Estimation
13.2.7 Risk Evaluation
13.2.8 LOPA Summary Sheet: An Example
13.2.9 Advantages of LOPA
13.3 Barrier Analysis
13.3.1 Barrier failure and Catastrophic Accidents
13.3.2 Important Definitions Related to Barrier Management
13.3.3 Independence of Barriers
13.3.4 Barrier Management Process
13.4 QRA
13.4.1 Estimation of Frequency of a Hazardous Event
13.4.1.1 Fault Tree Methodology
13.4.1.2 Event Tree Methodology
13.4.2 Estimation of Risk
13.4.2.1 Individual Risk
13.4.2.2 Societal Risk (F-N Curve)
13.4.3 Risk Determination
13.4.4 Risk Acceptability
13.4.4.1 Individual Risk – Acceptability Criteria
13.4.4.2 Societal Risk – Acceptability Criteria
13.4.5 Risk Reduction and ALARP
13.5 Functional Safety
13.5.1 SIS
13.5.2 SRS – Safety Requirement Specification
13.5.3 SIL
13.5.3.1 SIL Verification
13.5.3.2 SIL Validation
13.6 Database for Failure Frequencies and Probabilities
13.6.1 Failure Frequencies for Tanks and Vessels
13.6.2 Failure Frequencies of Process Pipework
13.6.3 Failure Frequencies of Cross-Country Pipelines
13.6.4 Failure Rates of Loading Arms
13.6.5 Failure Frequencies for Valves
13.6.6 Failure Probabilities for Protective Equipment
13.6.7 Probabilities of Human Error
13.6.8 Ignition Probability of Flammable Liquid Releases
13.6.9 Ignition of Gas Clouds
13.7 Application of LOPA, Barrier Analysis, and QRA
References
Chapter 14 Human Factors in Process Safety
14.1 Accidents and Human failures
14.2 Human Role in Hazard Control
14.3 Types of Human Errors
14.4 Human Factors in Safety (HFs)
14.5 Human Error Identification
14.6 HFs – A Core Element
14.7 Human Reliability Analysis (HRA)
14.8 HRA Adoption
14.9 Human Development
14.10 Industry Response
References
Chapter 15 Process Safety and Manufacturing Excellence
15.1 Process Safety Leadership
15.2 Process Safety Laws and Regulations
15.3 Process Safety vis-à-vis Personnel Safety
15.4 The Role of Process and Equipment Design in Ensuring Process Safety
15.5 Strategies for Implementation of Process Safety Programs
15.5.1 Sensor Validation
15.5.2 Sample Time Recording
15.5.3 Control System Hardware and Configuration
15.5.4 Control Valves
15.5.5 Control System Configuration
15.5.6 Regulatory Control Tuning
15.6 Higher-Level Multivariable Control and Optimization Applications
15.7 Online Calculations/Equipment Health Monitoring
15.7.1 Fired Heater Radiant Section Duty
15.7.2 Heat Exchanger Duty
15.7.2.1 No Phase Change
15.7.2.2 Condensing or Boiling
15.7.3 Distillation Column Pressure-Compensated Temperature
15.7.4 Distillation Column Approach to Flooding
15.7.5 Pump/Compressor/Turbine Efficiency and Vibration
15.7.6 Compressor Efficiency
15.7.7 Turbine Efficiency
15.7.8 Pump Efficiency
15.8 Smart Sensors/Inferential Calculations
15.9 Multivariable, Optimal Predictive Control (MPC)
15.9.1 Using Dynamic Simulation for Developing MPC Models
15.9.2 Closing Remarks on Model-Predictive Control (MPC)
15.10 Closed-Loop, Real-Time, Optimization (CLRTO)
15.10.1 Open-Equation Modeling for a Counter-Flow Heat Exchanger
15.10.2 Building Successful Plant-Wide CLRTO Applications
15.10.3 Challenges in Rigorous Chemical Reactor Modeling
15.11 Planning and Scheduling Optimization
15.12 Intelligent Alarm Management
15.13 Emergency Shutdown Systems (ESD)
15.14 Location of Process Control Rooms
References
Index