Foreword
References
Series Editor Foreword
Acknowledgments
Introduction
1 Empirical Translation Process Research
1.1 Size of Data Collection
1.2 Higher Sampling Rates, New Measures, and Theories
1.3 Translation Technology
2 Structure of the Volume
2.1 Translation Technology, Quality, and Effort
2.1.1 Chapter “Editing Actions: A Missing Link Between Translation Process Research and Machine Translation Research” by Félix do Carmo
2.1.2 Chapter “Word-Based Human Edit Rate (WHER) as an Indicator of Post-editing Effort” by Jie Huang and Michael Carl
2.1.3 Chapter “What Do You Say? Comparison of Metrics for Post-editing Effort” by Cristina Cumbreño and Nora Aranberri
2.1.4 Chapter “Measuring Effort in Subprocesses of Subtitling: The Case of Post-editing via Pivot Language” by Anke Tardel
2.2 Translation and Entropy
2.2.1 Chapter “Information and Entropy Measures of Rendered Literal Translation” by Michael Carl
2.2.2 Chapter “redBird: Rendering Entropy Data and ST-Based Information into a Rich Discourse on Translation” by Haruka Ogawa, Devin Gilbert, and Samar Almazroei
2.2.3 Chapter “Entropy and Eye Movement: A Micro-analysis of Information Processing in Activity Units During the Translation Process” by Yuxiang Wei
2.2.4 Chapter “Analyzing the Effects of Lexical Cognates on Translation Properties: A Multi-variate Product- and Process-Based Approach” by Arndt Heilmann and Carme Llorca-Bofí
2.3 Translation Segmentation and Translation Difficulty
2.3.1 Chapter “Micro Units and the First Translational Response Universal” by Michael Carl
2.3.2 Chapter “Metrics of Syntactic Equivalence to Assess Translation Difficulty” by Bram Vanroy, Orphée De Clercq, Arda Tezcan, Joke Daems, and Lieve Macken
2.3.3 Chapter “Using a Product Metric to Identify Differential Cognitive Effort in Translation from Japanese to English and Spanish” by Isabel Lacruz, Haruka Ogawa, Rika Yoshida, Masaru Yamada, and Daniel Ruiz Martinez
2.3.4 Chapter “Translating Chinese Neologisms Without Knowledge of Context: An Exploratory Analysis of an Eye-Tracking and Key-Logging Experiment” by Jinjin Chen
2.4 Translation Process Research and Post-cognitivism
2.4.1 Chapter “Computation and Representation in Cognitive Translation Studies” by Michael Carl
2.4.2 Chapter “Translation Norms, Translation Behavior, and Continuous Vector Space Models” by Michael Carl
2.4.3 Chapter “A Radical Embodied Perspective on the Translation Process” by Michael Carl
References
About the Book
Contents
About the Contributors
Abbreviations
Part I Translation Technology, Quality and Effort
Editing Actions: A Missing Link Between Translation Process Research and Machine Translation Research
1 Introduction
2 Editing as a Research Subject
2.1 Processes, Tasks and Actions
2.2 Reasons to Study Editing
2.3 Data Collection and Processing in TPR and MT
2.4 Edit Distances
3 Tools for the Analysis of Editing
3.1 Process Data from Common Tools and Keyloggers
3.2 From Simple to Complex Editing
4 Discussion
4.1 Current Uses of Process Data and of Error/Edit Rates
4.2 Best Methods to Study Editing
4.3 Open Questions for Research
4.4 Why Should TPR and MT Communicate?
5 Closing Remarks
References
Word-Based Human Edit Rate (WHER) as an Indicator of Post-editing Effort
1 Introduction
2 Related Research
2.1 Process Indicators
2.2 Product Indicators
3 Method
3.1 Material
3.2 Participants
3.3 Apparatus
3.4 Data Alignment
3.5 Computation of WHER
3.6 Features
4 Results
4.1 Process Features
4.2 Product Features
5 Discussion and Conclusion
References
What Do You Say? Comparison of Metrics for Post-editing Effort
1 Introduction
2 Related Work
3 Experimental Setup
3.1 Data Set and Error Categories
3.2 Metrics
3.3 Participants
4 Results
4.1 Inconsistencies in Editing Work
4.2 Comparison of Metric Results
4.3 Distributions of Errors Per Metric
4.3.1 Temporal Effort
4.3.2 Cognitive Effort
4.3.3 Technical Effort
4.3.4 Discussion of Results
5 Conclusions
References
Measuring Effort in Subprocesses of Subtitling
1 Introduction
2 Research on Computer-Assisted Subtitling
3 COMPASS Project
3.1 A Proposed Workflow for Subtitling
3.2 Study on Subprocesses in Subtitling
4 Methodology
5 Study Design and Procedure
5.1 Sampling
5.2 Material
5.3 Data Analysis
6 Results
6.1 Temporal Effort
6.2 Technical Effort
6.3 Cognitive Effort and Visual Attention
7 Discussion
8 Conclusion and Outlook
References
Part II Translation and Entropy
Information and Entropy Measures of Rendered Literal Translation
1 Introduction
2 Rendered Literal Translation
3 Translation Literality Measures
4 Literal Word Translation across Languages
4.1 Size of Alignment Groups
4.2 Distortion Probabilities
4.3 HTra across Languages
4.4 Correlation of Translation Information, Entropy, and Literality
4.5 Effects of Literality Measures on Translation Duration
5 Segment-Level Literality Measures
5.1 Segment-Based Total Translation Entropy
6 Discussion and Conclusion
Appendix 1: The multiLing Corpus
Appendix 2: Literality Values for Alternative Spanish Translations
References
RedBird: Rendering Entropy Data and ST-Based Information into a Rich Discourse on Translation
1 Introduction
2 Related Literature
3 Procedure
4 Correlations Among HTra
5 Exploratory Analyses
5.1 Word Class
5.2 Figurative
5.3 Voice
5.4 Anaphora
6 Concluding Remarks
A LMEM
References
Entropy and Eye Movement: A Micro-analysis of Information Processing in Activity Units During the Translation Process
1 Introduction
2 Theoretical Background
2.1 Entropy and Uncertainty
2.2 Relative Entropy and Cognitive Load
2.3 Systems Theory Perspective of the Translation Process
2.4 Activity Units in Translation
3 Entropy and Fixations in Activity Units
3.1 Machine Translation Post-editing
3.2 Effect of Averaging
3.3 An Example of Scanpath
4 “Cough Up”: Analysis on Activity Units
4.1 HTra Values for AUs Containing “Cough”
4.2
4.3 Translation Tasks into Different Languages
4.4 Dynamic Change of HTra Within the AU
5 General Discussion
6 Concluding Remarks
References
Analyzing the Effects of Lexical Cognates on Translation Properties: A Multivariate Product and Process Based Approach
1 Introduction
2 Measuring Formal Correspondence
3 Data and Participants
3.1 Prediction of Translation Choice
3.1.1 Predictability of (Cognate) Translation Choices
3.2 Prediction of Translation Process Properties
3.2.1 Reading Time and Formal Similarity of ST and TT
3.2.2 Transl. Duration and ST Cognate Status
3.2.3 Follow-Up Model to Transl. Duration: Number of Revisions
3.2.4 Translation Duration and Formal Similarity of ST and TT
4 Discussion
5 Conclusion and Outlook
References
Part III Translation Segmentation and Translation Difficulty
Micro Units and the First Translational Response Universal
1 Introduction
2 Micro Units and Revision Behavior
2.1 Alignment Groups, Production Unit, and Micro Units
2.2 Examples of Verbal and Nominal Translation
3 Determinants of Pause1 Duration
3.1 Source and Target Text Reading Patterns During Pause1
3.2 Pause1 and the Translation Product
4 Munits and Revision Patterns
5 Discussion and Conclusion
References
Metrics of Syntactic Equivalence to Assess Translation Difficulty
1 Introduction
2 Related Research
2.1 Background
2.2 Word Alignment
2.3 Existing Word-Reordering Metrics
3 Metrics
3.1 Universal Dependencies
3.2 Syntactically Aware Cross
3.2.1 Cross Summary
3.3 Label Changes
3.4 Aligned Syntactic Tree Edit Distance
3.4.1 Constructing Dependency Trees
3.4.2 Merge Grouped Tokens and Update Labels
3.4.3 Modify Dependency Trees
3.4.4 Calculate Tree Edit Distance
3.5 Metrics Overview
4 Discussion with Examples
4.1 Subject–Verb Word Order and the Future Tense
4.2 English Gerund, Verb Order and Null Alignment
5 Proof of Concept
6 Conclusion and Future Work
References
Using a Product Metric to Identify Differential Cognitive Effort in Translation from Japanese to English and Spanish
1 Introduction
2 Rationale
3 Participants and Materials
4 Alignment Process
5 Method and Analysis
6 Results
7 Discussion
8 General Conclusions and Future Directions
References
Translating Chinese Neologisms Without Knowledge of Context: An Exploratory Analysis of an Eye-Tracking and Key-Logging Experiment
1 Introduction
2 Knowledge of Context in Translation and Interpreting Studies
3 A Recursive Model of Translation
4 Methodology
4.1 Participants
4.2 Stimuli
4.3 Procedure
4.4 Data Processing
5 Effort for CNEO Translation and NNEO Translation
5.1 Objective Measures of Effort
5.1.1 ST Gaze Measures
5.1.2 TT Gaze Measures
5.1.3 Keystroke Measures
5.2 Subjective Assessment of Effort
5.3 Early Processing Effort and Late Processing Effort for CNEO Translation and NNEO Translation
6 Translation Strategies in Dealing with Different Categories of NNEO
6.1 Translating S-NNEO
6.2 Translating ER-NNEO
6.3 Translating A-NNEO
6.4 Translating I-NNEO
6.5 Translating E-NNEO
7 Discussion
8 Concluding Remarks
References
Part IV Translation Process Research and Post-cognitivism
Computation and Representation in Cognitive Translation Studies
1 Introduction
2 Non-computational
3 Non-representational
4 Typologies of Representation
5 Typologies of Computation
6 Conclusion
References
Translation Norms, Translation Behavior, and Continuous Vector Space Models
1 Introduction
2 Word Embeddings
2.1 Mapping Vector Spaces
2.2 Similarity Measures
3 Translation Norms in the Vector Space
3.1 Alternative Translations and the Vector Space
3.2 Translation Norms and the Vector Space
4 Mapping Translation Norms and Behavioral Data
4.1 Behavioral Data
4.2 Adaptation of Vector Space Measures
4.3 Correlation of Contextualized Translation
4.4 Correlation Contextualized Translations
5 Discussion
6 Conclusion
References
A Radical Embodied Perspective on the Translation Process
1 Introduction
2 Affordances and Anti-representational Cognition
3 Affordances and Probabilities
4 Affordances and Translation Priming
5 Affordances in the Translation Context
6 Conclusion
References
Index