Exclusion from Public Space: A Comparative Constitutional Analysis

✍ Scribed by Daniel Moeckli

• Publisher: Cambridge University Press
• Year: 2016
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 580
• Series: Cambridge Studies in International and Comparative Law
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

Hardly known twenty years ago, exclusion from public space has today become a standard tool of state intervention. Every year, tens of thousands of homeless individuals, drug addicts, teenagers, protesters and others are banned from parts of public space. The rise of exclusion measures is characteristic of two broader developments that have profoundly transformed public space in recent years: the privatisation of public space, and its increased control in the 'security society'. Despite the fundamental problems it raises, exclusion from public space has received hardly any attention from legal scholars. This book addresses this gap and comprehensively explores the implications that this new form of intervention has for the constitutional essentials of liberal democracy: the rule of law, fundamental rights, and democracy. To do so, it analyses legal developments in three liberal democracies that have been at the forefront of promoting exclusion measures: the United Kingdom, the United States, and Switzerland.

✦ Table of Contents

Cover
Half-title page
Series page
Title page
Copyright page
Summary contents
Contents
Acknowledgements
Abbreviations
1 Introduction
1.1 Exclusion from public space and its challenges to liberal democracy
1.2 Methodology
1.2.1 A constitutional analysis
1.2.2 A comparative analysis
1.2.3 Choice of states
1.3 Scope of research
1.4 Language and terminology
1.5 Structure of the book
2 Public space and its transformation
2.1 The definition of ‘public space’ and related concepts
2.1.1 ‘Public space’
2.1.1.1 ‘Space’
2.1.1.2 ‘Public’
2.1.1.3 ‘Public space’
2.1.2 ‘Public place’
2.1.3 ‘Semi-public space’
2.1.4 ‘Public forum’
2.1.5 ‘Public sphere’
2.2 Historical background
2.3 The importance of public space
2.3.1 Space of liberty
2.3.2 Space of equality
2.3.3 Space of tolerance
2.3.4 Space of democracy
2.3.5 The importance of (physical) public space in the information age
2.4 Regulation of the use of public space
2.4.1 Switzerland
2.4.2 United Kingdom
2.4.3 United States
2.5 The transformation of public space
2.5.1 Privatisation of public space
2.5.2 Increased control of public space in the security society
2.5.3 Public space transformed
2.6 Conclusion
3 Exclusion from public space
3.1 Historical background: the decline of banishment
3.2 The resurgence of exclusion
3.3 The targets of exclusion
3.3.1 Criminal behaviour
3.3.1.1 Convicted offenders
3.3.1.2 Potential offenders
3.3.2 Anti-social behaviour
3.3.2.1 Vagrancy, loitering, begging
3.3.2.2 Sitting, lying, spitting, drinking alcohol
3.3.2.3 Juvenile curfews
3.3.2.4 Blanket exclusion norms
3.3.3 Political protest
3.3.3.1 Creation of permanent protest-free zones
3.3.3.2 New police strategies
3.4 A typology of exclusion measures
3.4.1 Mode of exclusion
3.4.1.1 Informal exclusion: urban design
3.4.1.2 Prohibitions
3.4.1.3 Authorisation requirements
3.4.1.4 Court powers
3.4.1.5 Police powers
3.4.2 Excluded behaviour
3.4.2.1 Exclusion of particular forms of behaviour
3.4.2.2 Complete exclusion
3.4.3 Geographical scope
3.4.3.1 Limited scope
3.4.3.2 Unlimited scope
3.4.4 Temporal scope
3.4.4.1 Short term
3.4.4.2 Long term
3.4.4.3 Permanent
3.5 Conclusion
4 Rule of law
4.1 The rule of law/Rechtsstaatsprinzip
4.1.1 Historical background
4.1.2 The rule of law in the United Kingdom
4.1.3 The rule of law in the United States
4.1.4 The Rechtsstaatsprinzip in Switzerland
4.1.5 The rule of law in international law
4.1.6 Common elements of the rule of law and the Rechtsstaatsprinzip
4.1.7 Link to fundamental rights and democracy
4.2 Principle of legality
4.2.1 The need for legal authority
4.2.2 Exclusion from public space based on explicit legal authority
4.2.2.1 Switzerland
4.2.2.2 United States
4.2.2.3 United Kingdom
4.2.3 Exclusion from public space without explicit legal authority
4.2.3.1 Breach-of-the-peace powers and polizeiliche Generalklausel
4.2.3.2 Exclusion from public space based on breach-of-the-peace powers and the polizeiliche Generalklausel
4.3 Requirement of sufficient precision
4.3.1 In general
4.3.2 Norms authorising exclusion from public space and the requirement of sufficient precision
4.3.2.1 Scope of application
4.3.2.2 Available exclusion measures
4.3.2.3 Result
4.4 Procedural safeguards and access to justice
4.4.1 Circumvention of procedural safeguards
4.4.2 Right to an effective remedy
4.5 Conclusion
5 Fundamental rights: liberty
5.1 Fundamental and human rights
5.1.1 International law
5.1.2 United Kingdom
5.1.3 United States
5.1.4 Switzerland
5.2 Scope of protection
5.2.1 Human dignity
5.2.1.1 The guarantee of human dignity
5.2.1.2 Exclusion from public space and human dignity
5.2.2 The general guarantee: personal liberty/respect for private life
5.2.2.1 The right to personal liberty/respect for private life
5.2.2.2 Exclusion from public space and personal liberty/respect for private life
5.2.3 Freedom of movement
5.2.3.1 The right to freedom of movement
5.2.3.2 Exclusion from public space and freedom of movement
5.2.4 Freedom from arbitrary detention
5.2.4.1 The right to freedom from arbitrary detention
5.2.4.2 Exclusion from public space and freedom from arbitrary detention
5.2.5 Freedom of assembly
5.2.5.1 The right to freedom of assembly
5.2.5.2 Exclusion from public space and freedom of assembly
5.2.6 Freedom of expression
5.2.6.1 The right to freedom of expression
5.2.6.2 Exclusion from public space and freedom of expression
5.2.7 Respect for family life
5.2.7.1 The right to respect for family life
5.2.7.2 Exclusion from public space and respect for family life
5.2.8 Other fundamental rights
5.2.9 Result
5.3 Limitations
5.3.1 Legitimate aim
5.3.1.1 Criminal behaviour
5.3.1.2 Anti-social behaviour
5.3.1.3 Political protest
5.3.2 Proportionality
5.3.2.1 The principle of proportionality as a universal criterion of constitutionality
5.3.2.2 Proportionality of exclusion measures
5.3.3 Result
5.4 Conclusion
6 Fundamental rights: equality
6.1 The right to equality and non-discrimination
6.1.1 Sources
6.1.1.1 International law
6.1.1.2 United Kingdom
6.1.1.3 United States
6.1.1.4 Switzerland
6.1.2 Content
6.1.2.1 General issues
6.1.2.2 Difference in treatment or outcome
6.1.2.3 Comparability
6.1.2.4 Justification
6.1.2.5 Intensity of review
6.1.2.6 Evidence and proof
6.2 Exclusion from public space and the right to equality and non-discrimination
6.2.1 Criminal behaviour
6.2.1.1 Unequal laws: distinctions based on citizenship and residence permit status
6.2.1.2 Unequal enforcement: distinctions based on race, ethnic origin or religion
6.2.2 Anti-social behaviour
6.2.2.1 Unequal laws: distinctions based on age
6.2.2.2 Unequal enforcement: distinctions based on social status and way of life
6.2.2.3 Unequal enforcement: distinctions based on race and ethnic origin
6.2.3 Political protest
6.3 Conclusion
7 Democracy
7.1 Democracy
7.1.1 United Kingdom
7.1.2 United States
7.1.3 Switzerland
7.1.4 International law
7.2 The democratic legitimacy of exclusion measures
7.3 The consequences of exclusion measures for democracy
7.3.1 Exercise of political and civil rights in public space and democracy
7.3.2 Mere presence in public space and democracy
7.3.2.1 The ‘psychological conditions’ of democracy
7.3.2.2 Exclusion measures and the ‘psychological conditions’ of democracy
7.4 Conclusion
8 A right (of access) to public space?
8.1 ‘Reclaiming public space’?
8.1.1 Exclusion measures and the decline of public space
8.1.2 Reaction: claims for a right to public space
8.2 De lege lata: is there a right to public space?
8.2.1 United Kingdom
8.2.2 United States
8.2.3 Switzerland
8.2.4 Result
8.3 De lege ferenda: is there a need for a right to public space?
8.3.1 A right of access to public space?
8.3.2 A right to the existence of public space?
8.4 Conclusion
9 Synthesis
9.1 Conclusion: exclusion measures in conflict with liberal democracy
9.2 Outlook: the importance of civic responsibility
Bibliography
Annex I Overview of the most important exclusion norms
Annex II Typology of exclusion norms
Index