Emulsions and Emulsion Stability: Surfactant Science Series 61

✍ Scribed by Johan Sjoblom

• Publisher: CRC Press
• Year: 2005
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 671
• Edition: 2
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

Emulsions and Emulsion Stability, Second Edition provides comprehensive coverage of both theoretical and practical aspects of emulsions. The book presents fundamental concepts and processes in emulsified systems, such as flocculation, coalescence, stability, precipitation, deposition, and the evolution of droplet size distribution. The book explains how to predict emulsion stability and determine droplet sizes in a variety of emulsion systems. It discusses spontaneous emulsification and the formation of “nanoemulsions” as well as droplet-droplet interactions in different electrical fields (electrocoalescence), and the formulation, composition, and preparation variables that contribute to the inversion in emulsion systems. Several chapters emphasize applications such as emulsification encountered in oil spills, asphalt, chemical flooding, acid crude oils, and large-scale industrial wastewater treatment. The survey of experimental characterization methods highlights the importance of thin liquid films in colloidal systems and assesses different NMR applications, ultrasound characterization, video microscopy, and other on-line instrumentation. The last chapter in the book deals with obtaining conductivity measurements as an alternative to online instrumentation. Completely revised and expanded, this second edition of Emulsions and Emulsion Stability offers a well-rounded collection of knowledge that is applicable to all academic and industrial scientists and researchers in the fields of surfactant and emulsion science.

✦ Table of Contents

dk3056fm.pdf......Page 2
EMULSIONS AND EMULSION STABILITY, Second Edition......Page 8
Preface......Page 10
The Editor......Page 13
Contributors......Page 14
Table of Contents......Page 17
CONTENTS......Page 19
Table of Contents......Page 0
Abstract......Page 22
1.1.1 STABILITY MECHANISMS......Page 23
1.1.3 IMPORTANCE OF FLOCCULATION KINETICS......Page 24
1.1.4 SCOPE OF THE CHAPTER......Page 25
1.2.1.1 Macroscopic Approach......Page 26
1.2.1.3 Retardation......Page 27
1.2.2.1 Electrical Double Layer......Page 28
1.2.2.2 Double-Layer Interaction......Page 29
1.2.4 HYDRATION EFFECTS......Page 30
1.3.1 VON SMOLUCHOWSKI THEORY......Page 31
1.3.2 INCORPORATION OF HYDRODYNAMIC INTERACTION AND ATTRACTIVE SURFACE FORCES IN THE THEORY OF RAPID COAGULATION......Page 34
1.3.3 BROWNIAN COLLISIONS IN EMULSIONS......Page 35
1.3.3.1 Specification of the Fuchs Equation for Emulsions......Page 36
1.3.3.2 Expression for the Drop Collision Rate......Page 37
1.3.3.4 Brownian Collisions with van der Waals Forces......Page 39
1.3.4 EXPERIMENTS......Page 40
1.4.1 ORTHOKINETIC COAGULATION AND PARTICLE CAPTURE FROM FLOW......Page 42
1.4.2 PRIMITIVE MODEL OF GRAVITATIONAL FLOCCULATION AND ITS SPECIFICATION FOR EMULSIONS......Page 43
1.4.3 LONG-RANGE AND SHORT-RANGE HYDRODYNAMIC INTERACTION......Page 45
1.4.4 THE EFFECT OF DROPLET INERTIA......Page 47
1.4.5.1 The Grazing Trajectory Method......Page 49
1.4.5.2 Equation for the Smaller Drop Flux on the Surface of a Larger Drop......Page 50
1.4.5.3 Long-Range Hydrodynamic Interaction at Intermediate Reynolds Numbers......Page 51
1.4.5.3.3 Experiments......Page 52
1.4.6 FLOCCULATION IN A CENTRIFUGAL FIELD AND DYNAMIC ADSORPTION LAYER......Page 53
1.4.7 INCORPORATION OF SHORT-RANGE HYDRODYNAMIC INTERACTION AND ATTRACTIVE SURFACE FORCES IN THE THEORY OF INTERTIALESS COLLISION......Page 55
1.4.7.1 Quantitative Theory of Short-Range Hydrodynamic Interaction Given Attractive Surface Forces......Page 56
1.4.7.2 Theory Specification for Different Models......Page 58
1.4.7.3 Peculiarities of Gravitational Coagulation at Small Aggregation Numbers......Page 60
1.4.7.4 Estimation of the Size of Emulsion Drops Stable Against Flocculation with Larger Drops......Page 61
1.4.8.2 Experimental Investigation of Collision Efficiency at a Small Radius Ratio......Page 62
1.4.9 LONG- AND SHORT-RANGE HYDRODYNAMIC INTERACTION AND COLLISION EFFICIENCY AT ANY RADIUS RATIO......Page 63
1.4.10.1 Mobility Functions for the Relative Motion of Two Drops......Page 64
1.5.1 SECONDARY MINIMUM OF INTERACTION ENERGY IN EMULSIONS......Page 66
1.5.1.2 Repulsive Hydration Forces and the Secondary Minimum......Page 70
1.5.2 ESTIMATION OF THE SIZE OF DROPS NOT COAGULATING IN THE SECONDARY MINIMUM. SEDIMENTATION–HYDRODYNAMIC STABILITY MECHANISM OF MICROHETEROGENEOUS DISPERSED SYSTEMS......Page 71
1.5.4 PECULIARITIES OF SECONDARY FLOCCULATION IN EMULSION AND THEIR FRACTIONATION......Page 74
1.5.5.2 Similarity in Collision Efficiencies of Primary and Secondary Gravitational Coagulation......Page 75
1.7 CLASSIFICATION OF REGIMES OF GRAVITATIONAL COAGULATION......Page 76
1.8.1 GRAVITY-INDUCED FLOCCULATION VERSUS BROWNIAN FLOCCULATION......Page 79
1.8.2 GRAVITY-INDUCED FLOCCULATION VERSUS CREAMING......Page 82
1.8.3 DOMAINS OF DOMINANT PARTICLE LOSS MECHANISMS......Page 83
1.8.4 EXPERIMENT......Page 86
1.9.1.1 Kinetic and Thermodynamic Stability in Macroemulsions and Mini-Emulsions......Page 88
1.9.1.2 Current State of Emulsion Stability Science......Page 89
1.9.1.4 Scope of Section 9......Page 90
1.9.2.1 Singlet–Doublet Quasi-Equilibrium......Page 91
1.9.2.2 Kinetic Equation for Coupling of Flocculation and Intradoublet Coalescence in Monodisperse Emulsions......Page 92
1.9.2.3 Coalescence in a Singlet–Doublet System at Quasi-Equilibrium......Page 93
1.9.2.4 Reduced Role of Fragmentation with Decreasing tauc......Page 94
1.9.2.5.1 Application of Video Enhanced Microscopy Combined with the Microslide Technique for Investigation of Singlet–Doublet Equilibrium and Intradoublet Coalescence......Page 95
1.9.2.5.3 The Measurement of Coalescence Time and Doublet Fragmentation Time......Page 96
1.9.2.6 Perspective for Generalization of the Theory for Coupling of Coalescence and Flocculation......Page 97
1.9.3.1 General......Page 98
1.9.3.2.1 The Model by Borwankar et al.......Page 99
1.9.3.2.2 The Limiting Cases of Fast and Slow Coalescence......Page 100
1.9.3.3 DIGB Model for the Simultaneous Processes of Coagulation and Coalescence......Page 101
1.9.4.1 Theory of Doublet Fragmentation Time......Page 103
1.9.4.2 Doublet Fragmentation Time of Uncharged Droplets......Page 105
1.9.5.1 Fragmentation of Primary Flocs in Emulsions and the Subsequent Reduction of Coalescence......Page 107
1.9.5.2 Domains of Coalescence Coupled Either with Coagulation or with Flocculation......Page 110
1.9.5.3 Hydration Forces Initiate Flocculation......Page 112
1.9.6.1 Long-Term Prediction of Emulsion Stability......Page 113
1.9.6.2.2 Strong Influence of Low Concentrations of Ionic Surfactant on Doublet Fragmentation Time and Coalescence Time......Page 114
1.9.6.4.1 General......Page 115
1.9.6.4.3 Kernel Determination......Page 116
1.10 SUMMARY......Page 117
LATIN......Page 118
REFERENCES......Page 119
Abstract......Page 125
2.2 MECHANICAL MECHANISMS......Page 126
2.3 LOCAL SUPERSATURATION: GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS......Page 128
2.5 LOCAL SUPERSATURATION: SELF-EMULSIFICATION......Page 130
2.6 SELF-EMULSIFICATION PRODUCED BY PREFERENTIAL DIFFUSION OF SOME SPECIES INTO WATER......Page 131
2.7 SELF-EMULSIFICATION WITH AN ANIONIC SURFACTANT......Page 134
2.8 SELF-EMULSIFICATION PRODUCED BY CHEMICAL REACTION OF SURFACTANTS......Page 136
2.9 SELF-EMULSIFICATION FOR COMPOSITIONS NEAR THE PHASE INVERSION TEMPERATURE......Page 137
2.10 SUMMARY......Page 141
REFERENCES......Page 142
CONTENTS......Page 145
3.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 146
3.2.1 THE PROBLEM: “FILM THICKNESS”......Page 148
3.2.2 MICROSCOPIC EMULSION OR FOAM FILMS......Page 150
3.2.3 BLACK WOW EMULSION FILMS......Page 152
3.2.4 MEASUREMENT OF THE DISJOINING PRESSURE......Page 154
3.2.5 MEASUREMENT OF THE CONTACT ANGLES......Page 155
3.3 THINNING AND RUPTURE OF THIN LIQUID FILMS; BLACK SPOT FORMATION......Page 156
3.3.1 KINETICS OF THINNING OF PLANE-PARALLEL LIQUID FILMS......Page 157
3.3.2 DEVIATIONS FROM THE PLANE-PARALLEL FILM DURING ITS THINNING......Page 160
3.3.3 RUPTURE OF THIN LIQUID FILMS......Page 163
3.3.4 JUMP-LIKE FORMATION OF BLACK SPOTS IN AN EMULSION OR FOAM FILM......Page 165
3.4 THERMODYNAMICS OF THIN EMULSION AND FOAM FILMS......Page 167
3.4.2 MECHANICAL EQUILIBRIUM OF A THIN EMULSION OR FOAM FILM......Page 168
3.4.3 FUNDAMENTAL THERMODYNAMIC EQUATIONS OF A THIN LIQUID FILM......Page 171
3.4.4 THERMODYNAMIC APPROACH WITH TWO GIBBS DIVIDING PLANES......Page 172
3.4.5 CONTACT BETWEEN A THIN EMULSION OR FOAM FILM AND THE ADJACENT BULK LIQUID......Page 176
3.5 SURFACE FORCES IN THIN EMULSION AND FOAM FILMS......Page 177
3.5.1.1 Electrostatic Disjoining Pressure......Page 178
3.5.1.2 van der Waals Disjoining Pressure......Page 179
3.5.2.1 Experiments with Foam Films......Page 180
3.5.2.2 Experiments with Emulsion Films......Page 182
3.5.2.3 Potential of the Diffuse Double Layer at the Film’s Interface......Page 183
3.5.3 STERIC SURFACE FORCES......Page 184
3.5.4 OSCILLATORY DISJOINING PRESSURE......Page 187
3.6.1 TWO EQUILIBRIUM PHASE STATES OF BLACK FILMS......Page 188
3.6.2 DISJOINING PRESSURE IN BLACK FILMS......Page 189
3.6.2.1 Ionic Surfactants......Page 190
3.6.2.3 Phospholipids......Page 191
3.6.3 PROPERTIES OF CBF AND NBF AND THE TRANSITION BETWEEN THEM......Page 193
3.6.4 STABILITY AND RUPTURE OF BILAYER BLACK FILMS......Page 195
3.7 SIMILARITY BETWEEN EMULSION FILMS AND FOAM FILMS......Page 199
REFERENCES......Page 200
4.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 203
4.2.1 TWO-PHASE BEHAVIOR......Page 204
4.2.2 THREE-PHASE BEHAVIOR......Page 205
4.2.3.2 Generalized Formulation......Page 207
4.2.4 2D/3D REPRESENTATIONS OF PHASE BEHAVIOR......Page 209
4.3.1 WHAT IS THE STANDARD INVERSION?......Page 211
4.3.2 BIDIMENSIONAL MAPPING OF EMULSION TYPE......Page 212
4.3.3 EFFECT OF OTHER VARIABLES......Page 214
4.3.4 IMPORTANCE OF 2D (HLD-WOR) AND 3D (HLD-WOR-OV) MAPS......Page 215
4.4.1 EXPERIMENTAL DESCRIPTION OF DYNAMIC INVERSION......Page 217
4.4.2 TRANSITIONAL INVERSION......Page 218
4.4.3 CATASTROPHIC INVERSION......Page 221
4.4.4.1 Mechanism of Transitional Inversion......Page 223
4.4.4.2 Modeling of Catastrophic Inversion......Page 225
4.4.5.1 Catastrophic Inversion......Page 228
4.4.5.2 TRANSITIONAL INVERSION......Page 231
4.4.5.3 Inversion Produced by Combined Formulation-WOR Variation......Page 232
4.4.5.4 Inversion Produced by Other Variables in 3D Representation......Page 234
4.4.5.5 Emulsification and Inversion of Non-Equilibrated Systems......Page 235
4.4.6 EMULSION INVERSION IN PRACTICE......Page 237
4.5 APPENDIX: HOW TO RETRIEVE INFORMATION......Page 238
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 240
REFERENCES......Page 241
5.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 245
5.2 EXPERIMENTAL......Page 247
5.3.1.1 Emulsion Inversion......Page 248
5.3.1.2.1 In Water Solution......Page 252
5.3.1.2.2 Properties at the Air/Water Interface......Page 254
5.3.1.3 Conclusions Overall......Page 256
5.3.2 COMPARISON BETWEEN SOLVESSO 150 D AND METHYL LAURATE......Page 257
5.3.3 OPTIMIZATION OF A SURFACTANT COMBINATION FOR SOIL REMEDIATION......Page 259
5.4 CONCLUSIONS......Page 260
REFERENCES......Page 262
6.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 263
6.2.1 PREPARATION OF ORGANIC MACROPOROUS FOAMS IN HIGHLY CONCENTRATED EMULSIONS......Page 266
6.2.2 PREPARATION OF INORGANIC MACROPOROUS FOAMS IN HIGHLY CONCENTRATED EMULSIONS......Page 269
6.3.1.1 Two-Step Methods......Page 271
6.3.1.2 Single-Step Methods......Page 274
6.3.2 PREPARATION OF HIERARCHICALLY TEXTURED FOAMS IN HIGHLY CONCENTRATED EMULSIONS STABILIZED BY SOLID PARTICLES......Page 276
6.4 SUMMARY......Page 277
REFERENCES......Page 278
7.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 280
7.2 REACTION IN EMULSIONS......Page 281
7.3 REACTION IN MICROEMULSIONS......Page 285
7.3.1 OVERCOMING REAGENT INCOMPATIBILITY......Page 286
7.3.2 EFFECT OF SURFACTANT CHARGE ON REACTIVITY......Page 290
7.3.3 SELECTIVITY IN MICROEMULSION-BASED REACTIONS......Page 292
REFERENCES......Page 295
8.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 299
8.2 BASIC NMR PRINCIPLES......Page 300
8.3.1 THE CPMG PULSED SEQUENCE......Page 301
8.3.3 DETERMINATION OF DROP SIZES AND STABILITY OF EMULSIONS VIA CPMG......Page 302
8.4.1 THE PGSE PULSED SEQUENCE......Page 308
8.4.3 DETERMINATION OF DROP SIZES IN EMULSIONS VIA PGSE AND PGSTE......Page 309
8.4.3.1 Range of Drop Sizes That can be Resolved via PGSE......Page 312
8.4.3.2 Resolving for Drop Size Distributions with Arbitrary Shape in Short Timeframes......Page 313
8.4.3.3 Effect of Surface Relaxation on Restricted Diffusion Measurements......Page 314
8.4.4 A Generalized Theory for the Time-Resolved Attenuation Ratio of Emulsions......Page 315
8.4.5.2 Kinetics of Emulsion Freezing......Page 318
8.4.6 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF THE PGSE AND PGSTE EXPERIMENTS......Page 319
REFERENCES......Page 320
Abstract......Page 326
9.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 327
9.2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND......Page 328
9.2.1 THEORY OF ACOUSTICS......Page 329
9.2.2 THEORY OF ELECTROACOUSTICS......Page 332
9.3.1 ATTENUATION OR SOUND SPEED?......Page 337
9.3.2 RANGES OF VALUES......Page 338
9.3.3 PRECISION......Page 339
9.4.1 DAIRY PRODUCTS: DROPLET SIZING......Page 340
9.4.2 DAIRY PRODUCTS: FAT CONTENT......Page 345
9.4.3 MICROEMULSION......Page 346
9.4.4 EVOLUTION OF WATER-IN-OIL EMULSION CONTROLLED BY DROPLET–BULK ION EXCHANGE......Page 352
REFERENCES......Page 366
10.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 369
10.2 WEATHERING OF OIL ON THE SEA SURFACE......Page 370
10.2.1 EVAPORATION......Page 371
10.2.2 WATER-IN-OIL EMULSIFICATION......Page 372
10.2.3 NATURAL DISPERSION......Page 379
10.3.1 THE NOFO 1994 FIELD TRIAL: SURFACE RELEASE......Page 380
10.3.2 THE NOFO 1995 FIELD TRIAL: SURFACE AND UNDERWATER “PIPELINE” RELEASES......Page 381
10.3.3 THE NOFO 1996 FIELD TRIAL: SIMULATED SUB-SEA BLOWOUT FROM MODERATE DEPTHS......Page 383
10.3.4 THE DEEPSPILL EXPERIMENT......Page 385
10.4.1 SLICK LIFETIME......Page 387
10.4.2 MECHANICAL RECOVERY......Page 388
10.4.3 USE OF CHEMICAL DISPERSANTS......Page 391
10.5 CONCLUSIONS......Page 392
REFERENCES......Page 394
CONTENTS......Page 396
11.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 397
11.2 BITUMEN......Page 398
11.3 EMULSIFIERS......Page 399
11.3.1 ANIONIC EMULSIFIERS......Page 400
11.3.2 CATIONIC EMULSIFIERS......Page 401
11.4 MANUFACTURING AND HANDLING......Page 402
11.4.1 COLLOID MILLS......Page 403
11.4.2 OTHER INDUSTRIAL EMULSIFICATION METHODS......Page 404
11.4.3.2 Storage Stability......Page 405
11.4.3.4 Chemical Stability......Page 406
11.5.1 CHARGE ON EMULSION PARTICLES......Page 407
11.5.5 RESIDUE ON A SIEVE......Page 408
11.5.8 RECOVERY OF BITUMEN......Page 409
11.6 BREAKING AND ADHESION......Page 410
11.6.1 BREAKING ADDITIVES......Page 412
11.7 APPLICATIONS......Page 413
11.7.1.1 Surface Dressing......Page 415
11.7.1.1.1 Evaporation Filtration Test......Page 416
11.7.2 TECHNIQUES FOR COLD MIX ASPHALT......Page 417
11.7.2.1 Open Graded Emulsion Mixes......Page 418
11.7.2.3 Slurry Seal and Microsurfacing......Page 421
11.7.4 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS......Page 422
11.8 THE FUTURE FOR BITUMEN EMULSIONS......Page 423
REFERENCES......Page 425
CONTENTS......Page 427
12.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 428
12.2.1 SARA FRACTIONATION BY HIGH PERFORMANCE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY......Page 429
12.2.2 SARA FRACTIONATION BY AUTOMATED TLC-FID......Page 431
12.2.3.1 Applications......Page 433
12.2.3.1.3 Emulsion Stability Correlated to Physicochemical Parameters and NIR......Page 434
12.2.3.1.4 High-Pressure Study of Asphaltene Aggregation......Page 435
12.2.3.1.6 Asphaltene Destabilization......Page 437
12.3.1 CRITICAL ELECTRIC FIELD AS A MEASURE OF EMULSION STABILITY......Page 438
12.3.1.1 Applications......Page 439
12.3.2 DETERMINATION OF THE RHEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A W/O INTERFACE......Page 442
12.3.2.1 Applications......Page 445
12.3.3.1 Background......Page 447
12.3.3.2 Applications......Page 448
12.3.4 PENDANT DROP INSTRUMENTATION/INTERFACIAL REACTIONS......Page 451
12.3.4.1 Applications......Page 454
12.3.5 QUARTZ CRYSTAL MICROBALANCE......Page 458
12.3.5.1 Applications......Page 459
12.3.6 ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPY......Page 461
12.3.6.2.1 Topography of a Substrate......Page 463
12.3.6.2.2 Adsorbate on a Surface......Page 464
12.3.7 PLASMACHEMICAL SURFACE MODIFICATION......Page 465
12.3.8 CONTACT ANGLES......Page 467
12.3.9 ZETA POTENTIAL......Page 468
12.3.10 DYNAMIC LIGHT SCATTERING......Page 469
12.3.11 UV–VISIBLE SPECTROSCOPY......Page 473
12.3.11.1 Applications......Page 476
12.3.12 TIME-CORRELATED SINGLE PHOTON COUNTING SPECTROSCOPY......Page 479
12.3.12.1 Applications......Page 480
REFERENCES......Page 483
CONTENTS......Page 489
13.1.1 ACIDIC OIL ORIGIN AND RELATED PRODUCTION PROBLEMS......Page 490
13.1.2.1 Prediction of the Risks of Scale and/or Emulsion......Page 492
13.1.3.2 Naphthenate Equilibrium......Page 493
13.1.4 EMULSION STABILIZATION BY NAPHTHENATES......Page 495
13.2 CHARACTERIZATION OF NAPHTHENIC ACIDS IN CRUDE OILS......Page 496
13.2.1.2 FT-IR Spectroscopy......Page 497
13.2.1.3 Gas Chromatography......Page 498
13.2.2 NAPHTHENIC ACID EXTRACTION FROM CRUDE OIL......Page 499
13.2.3.2 Determination of Naphthenate Deposits by Mass Spectrometry......Page 500
13.2.3.3 Characterization of Naphthenic Acids by FTMS......Page 501
13.3.1 MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES......Page 505
13.3.2 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: CRUDE OILS......Page 507
13.3.2.1 Dalia 1 Results......Page 508
13.3.2.2 Orquidea Results......Page 509
13.3.2.3 Dalia 2 Results......Page 510
13.3.2.4.1 Dalia 1......Page 512
13.3.2.4.3 Dalia 2......Page 514
13.4.1 BACKGROUND TO PHASE BEHAVIOR MODELING......Page 516
13.4.2 THE MODEL......Page 520
13.4.3 APPLICATION TO MODEL SYSTEMS......Page 522
13.4.4.1 Determination of Apparent Dissociation Constants......Page 523
13.4.4.2 Relationship to Emulsion Stability......Page 524
13.5 CONCLUSIONS......Page 526
REFERENCES......Page 527
CONTENTS......Page 529
14.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 530
14.2.1.1 Separation of Crude Oil Fractions......Page 531
14.2.1.3 Model Emulsions and Measurement of Interfacial Properties......Page 532
14.2.2.1 Physical Properties of Crude Fractions......Page 533
14.2.2.2 Interfacial Tension......Page 535
14.2.2.3 Interfacial Shear Viscosity......Page 536
14.2.2.4 Zeta Potential......Page 538
14.2.2.5 Stability of Emulsions......Page 540
14.3.2.2 Interfacial Shear Viscosity......Page 546
14.3.2.3 Zeta Potential......Page 547
14.3.2.4 Stability of O/W Emulsions......Page 548
14.4.2.2 Interfacial Shear Viscosity......Page 550
14.4.2.3 Zeta Potential......Page 551
14.4.2.4 Stability of Emulsions......Page 552
14.5 EFFECT OF ALKALINE–SURFACTANT–POLYMER......Page 554
14.5.2 INTERFACIAL SHEAR VISCOSITY......Page 555
14.5.3 ZETA POTENTIAL......Page 556
14.5.4 STABILITY OF EMULSIONS......Page 557
REFERENCES......Page 558
CONTENTS......Page 560
15.1 BACKGROUND......Page 561
15.2 INTRODUCTION......Page 562
15.3.2 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS AND FORCES IN VACUUM......Page 563
15.3.3 POLARIZATION......Page 565
15.3.4 CONDUCTION......Page 566
15.3.5 TIME CONSTANTS......Page 567
15.3.7 PRACTICAL COALESCER SYSTEM......Page 568
15.3.9 PROCESSES FOR CHARGING OF DROPS......Page 570
15.3.10 CHEMICAL SURFACE POTENTIALS IN EXTERNAL ELECTRICAL FIELDS......Page 571
15.4.1 ELECTROSTATIC FORCES ACTING ON A SINGLE DROPLET......Page 572
15.4.2 MECHANICAL FORCES......Page 573
15.4.3 FORCES AND MOVEMENT OF DROP PAIRS......Page 574
15.4.3.2 The Dipole-Induced Dipole Model......Page 575
15.4.3.3 Analytical Solution......Page 576
15.4.4 ELECTROSTATIC MODELS FOR MULTIPLE SPHERES......Page 579
15.4.5 FORCES AND MOVEMENT IN EMULSIONS......Page 580
15.5.1 CLASSICAL THEORY OF DROP INSTABILITIES......Page 582
15.5.2 EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS OF DISINTEGRATION OF WATER DROPS IN OIL......Page 583
15.6 THE ELECTROCOALESCENCE MECHANISM......Page 586
15.6.1 MERGER OF DROP PAIRS......Page 588
15.6.2 CRITICAL CONDITIONS......Page 590
15.6.3 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS OF FALLING DROPS......Page 593
15.6.4 NON-IDEAL SURFACES......Page 594
15.6.5 EXPERIMENTS WITH SUPPORTED DROPS......Page 596
15.7 SOME CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING PRACTICAL ELECTROCOALESCERS......Page 597
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 599
REFERENCES......Page 600
Abstract......Page 604
16.2 FLOW BEHAVIOR IN HORIZONTAL GRAVITY SEPARATORS......Page 605
16.3.1 DISPERSED MIXTURES OF OIL AND WATER......Page 606
16.3.2 THE BOTTLE TEST (BATCH SEPARATION)......Page 607
16.3.3 MODELING AND SIMULATION OF BATCH SEPARATION......Page 608
16.4.1 FLUID FLOW MODELING AND SIMULATION......Page 609
16.4.2.2 Tracer Response in Water Zone......Page 612
16.5 CONCLUSIONS......Page 613
REFERENCES......Page 615
CONTENTS......Page 617
17.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 618
17.1.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF CHARACTERIZATION......Page 619
17.1.1.1 Coalescence......Page 620
17.2.1 PRODUCTION RELATED CHALLENGES......Page 621
17.2.2.1 Critical Droplet Size Evaluation......Page 623
17.2.2.2 Droplet Generation......Page 624
17.2.2.3 Effect of Upstream and Downstream Equipment......Page 625
17.2.4 VISCOSITY MODELS FOR OIL/WATER EMULSIONS......Page 626
17.2.5.1 Traditional Sizing......Page 627
17.2.5.2 The Shell Model......Page 629
17.2.5.3 The Hartland Model......Page 630
17.3 EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF SEPARATOR PERFORMANCE......Page 632
17.3.3 DROPLET CHARACTERIZATION RIGS 1 TO 3......Page 633
17.4 DATA SOURCES......Page 634
17.6.1 SLUGGING......Page 636
17.7 CONCLUSIONS......Page 637
REFERENCES......Page 638
FURTHER READING......Page 639
18.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 640
18.2.1 DROPLET SIZE DISTRIBUTION......Page 642
18.2.3 DROPLET SHAPE......Page 643
18.3.2 HIGH-PRESSURE SEPARATION RIG......Page 644
18.3.3 HIGH-PRESSURE VIDEO MICROSCOPY......Page 645
18.3.4 IMAGE ANALYSIS......Page 647
18.4 RESULTS......Page 649
REFERENCES......Page 655
19.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 659
19.2 EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES FOR DEMULSIFICATION MONITORING......Page 660
19.3.3 TEST PROCEDURE......Page 661
19.3.3.1 Calibration......Page 662
19.4.2 DEMULSIFICATION EXPERIMENTS......Page 663
19.5 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES WITH THE DEMCOM METHOD......Page 667
19.6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS......Page 668
REFERENCES......Page 669