Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
About the Editor
1: Introduction to Endocrinology
1.1 Comprehensive and Classical Definition of Hormones
1.2 Hormonal Delivery Signalling
1.2.1 Intracrine Signal
1.2.2 Juxtacrine Signalling
1.2.3 Paracrine Signalling
1.2.4 Autocrine Signalling
1.2.5 Endocrine Signalling
1.2.6 Protrusions Signalling
1.3 Endocrine Glands: Location and Functions at Glance
1.3.1 Pituitary Gland and the Hypothalamus Control
1.3.2 Thyroid Gland
1.3.3 Parathyroid Gland
1.3.4 Adrenal Glands
1.3.5 Pineal Gland
1.3.6 Pancreas
1.3.7 Ovaries
1.3.8 Testes
1.3.9 The Secondary Endocrine Organs
1.4 Update on Ectopic Hormone Secretion
1.5 General Characteristics of the Endocrine Glands
1.6 Chemical Classification of Hormones
1.6.1 Peptides, Proteins and Glycoprotein Hormones
1.6.2 Glycoprotein Hormones
1.6.3 Steroid Hormones
1.6.4 Amino Acid Derived Hormones
1.6.5 Fatty Acid Derivatives Hormones (Eicosanoids)
1.6.6 Terpenes Hormones
1.7 Conclusion
References
2: Biological Synthesis of Hormones in Endocrine Cell
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Group One: Proteins and Polypeptides Hormones
2.2.1 Synthesis of the Preprohormone
2.2.2 Production of the Prohormone
2.2.3 Release of the Hormone
2.3 Group Two: Amino Acid Derivatives Hormones
2.3.1 Synthesis of Adrenaline and Noradrenaline (Epinephrine, Norepinephrine, and Dopamine)
2.3.2 Synthesis of Thyroid Gland Hormones
2.3.2.1 Thyroglobulin
2.3.2.2 Glycoprotein Role in Thyrocyte
2.3.2.3 Synthesis of Thyroid Hormones in Follicular Cells
2.4 Group Three: Steroid Hormones
2.5 Group Four: Terpene Hormones Synthesis
2.6 Principal Characteristic of Hormones
2.7 The Various Phases in the Life Cycle of a Hormone from Synthesis to Elimination Are Summarized as Follows
2.8 Emerging Strategy for Hormones/Receptor Degradation as Therapy
2.9 Methods for Studying the Functions of the Endocrine Glands
2.10 Conclusion
References
3: Mechanism of Hormones Secretion and Action
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Mechanism of Target Cell Signaling
3.2.1 Second Messengers
3.2.2 The Mechanism of Action of Hormones in the Target Cell
3.3 Main Functions of the Endocrine System
3.3.1 Endocrine System Coordinates Physiological Functions of the Body
3.3.2 Endocrine System Controls Stem Cells System in the Body: The Missing Link
3.3.2.1 Effect of Endocrine and Hormonal Signals on Stem Cell in Different Life Stages
3.3.2.2 New Role: Endocrine System Helps in Designing and Overcoming the Limitation of Stem Cell Therapy
3.3.3 Hormones Govern Receptor Regulation and Number
3.3.4 Hormones Regulate Ions Transport and Membrane Permeability
3.3.5 Hormones Regulate Substances and Minerals in the Blood and Cells
3.3.6 The Circadian Rhythm of the Hypothalamus-Pituitary Axis
3.3.7 Completion of Growth, Sexual, Differentiation, and Mental Maturation
3.3.8 Elasticity and Plasticity of Human Endocrine System
3.3.9 Endocrine Physiology and Adaptation to Stressors
3.4 Factors Regulating Hormones Secretion
3.4.1 Regulation of Hormone Concentration in the Circulatory System by Humoral Factors
3.4.2 Hypothalamic Control of the Pituitary Gland
3.4.3 Direct Neuronal Stimulation on Endocrine Glands and Cells
3.4.4 Effect of External Environment, Genetics, and Lifestyle on Hormones Secretion
3.5 Relationship and Coordination Between Hormones Actions
3.5.1 Regulatory and Domination Relationship
3.5.2 Alternating Relationship
3.5.3 Antagonistic Relationship
3.5.4 Permissive Action
3.5.5 Cooperative Relationship
3.6 Conclusion
References
4: The Pituitary Gland: Functional Relationship with the Hypothalamus, Structure, and Physiology
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Anatomy and Histology of the Pituitary Gland
4.2.1 Adenohypophysis
4.2.2 Neurohypophysis
4.2.3 Stem Cells Marginal Zone and Folliculostellate
4.3 Endocrine Physiological Functions of the Hypothalamus
4.3.1 Hypothalamus Releasing Stimulatory Hormones on the Pituitary
4.3.2 Hypothalamus Inhibitory Factors on the Pituitary
4.3.3 Appetite Regulation
4.3.4 Water Balance
4.3.5 Body Temperature Regulation
4.3.6 Circadian Rhythmicity
4.3.7 Resurgent View: Hypothalamic Stem Cells (The Tanycytes)
4.4 Hormones of the Pituitary Gland
4.4.1 Growth Hormone
4.4.1.1 Characters of Growth Hormone
4.4.1.2 Physiological Functions of Growth Hormone
Stimulation of Bone and Cartilage Growth
Growth Hormone Regulates Metabolism
Growth Hormone Participates in Haematopoiesis
Growth Hormone Participates in Puberty
Growth Hormone and Glucocorticoids
Growth Hormone Retains Mineral and Water
4.4.1.3 Regulation of Growth Hormone Release
4.4.1.4 Disruption in Growth Hormone Levels
4.4.2 Prolactin and Its Nature
4.4.2.1 Physiological Functions of Prolactin
4.4.2.2 Regulation of Prolactin Release and Functions
4.4.2.3 Prolactin in Males
4.4.3 Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone
4.4.3.1 Nature of Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone
4.4.3.2 Physiological Functions of TSH
4.4.3.3 Regulation of Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone Secretion
4.4.4 Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH)
4.4.4.1 Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone Nature
4.4.4.2 Physiological Release and Levels of Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone
4.4.4.3 Physiological Functions of ACTH
4.4.4.4 Regulation of ACTH Secretion
4.4.5 Gonadotropins
4.4.5.1 Follicle-Stimulating Hormone and Luteinizing Hormone, Their Nature
4.4.5.2 Blood Levels of FSH and LH
4.4.5.3 Functions of FSH and LH
Gonadotropins Functions in Males (Figs. 4.13 and 4.14)
Gonadotropins Functions in Females (Fig. 4.15)
4.4.6 Human Chorionic Gonadotropin
4.4.6.1 hCG Sources
4.4.6.2 hCG Nature
4.4.6.3 Physiological Functions of hCG
4.4.7 Human Menopausal Gonadotropin
4.4.8 Physiological Activities of HMG
4.4.9 Hormones of Posterior Pituitary
4.4.9.1 Production of Oxytocin and ADH
4.4.9.2 Functions of Oxytocin
4.4.9.3 Functions of Vasopressin/ADH
4.4.10 Opioid Categories
4.4.10.1 Endorphin
4.4.10.2 Enkephalins
4.4.10.3 Functions of Endorphin and Enkephalin
4.5 Competent Role of Stem and Wave of Progenitor Cells in the Pituitary
4.6 Conclusion
References
5: Thyroid Glands: Physiology and Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Functional Structure of the Thyroid Gland
5.3 Importance of Thyroid Gland
5.4 Physiological Functions of Thyroid Gland
5.5 Phases of the Production and Secretion of the Thyroid Hormones
5.5.1 Phase 1: Hormone Production
5.5.1.1 Iodine Trapping and Transport
5.5.1.2 Oxidation
5.5.1.3 Iodine Organification (Iodination)
5.5.1.4 Condensation-Coupling
5.5.2 Phase 2: Storage of Hormones
5.5.3 Phase 3: Proteolysis of Thyroglobulin and Hormones Secretion
5.5.4 Phase 4: Conversion and Forms of Thyroid Hormones
5.6 Thyroid Hormone Metabolism or Deiodination
5.7 Physiological Functions of the Thyroid Hormones
5.8 New Functions of Thyroid Hormones
5.9 Regulation of Thyroid Hormones
5.10 Goiter and Thyroid Diseases
5.11 Stem or Progenitor Cells of the Thyroid Gland: The Promising Alternative Source
5.12 Conclusion
References
6: Bone Remodeling Physiology: Regulation of Parathyroid Glands, C Cells, Vitamin D, and Bone as an Endocrine Organ
6.1 Introduction and Bone Remodeling
6.2 Functional Structure of the Parathyroid Glands
6.3 Importance and Function of Parathyroid Glands
6.4 New Ectopic Parathyroid Hormone Synthesis in Adipose Tissues
6.5 Extracellular Calcium-Sensing Receptor (CaSR)
6.6 Calcium Distribution
6.7 Regulating Hormones of Ionized Calcium´s Metabolism
6.8 Bone Functions and Cells
6.9 Bone as an Endocrine and Paracrine Organ
6.9.1 Osteocalcin
6.9.2 Sclerostin
6.9.3 Lipocalin
6.10 Functions of Parathormone (PTH) and PTHrP-1
6.10.1 Bone Cells and Formation: Balance, Remodeling, and Repair
6.10.2 Effect of PTH and rhPTH at Aging
6.10.3 Paradoxical and a Glance on Therapeutic Functions of PTH
6.10.4 PTH Functions on Intestines
6.10.5 PTH Effects on Kidney
6.10.6 PTH Effects on Placenta
6.10.7 Hematopoietic, Repairing, and Proliferation Prompting Effect of PTH
6.10.8 PTHs Effect on Breast and Lactation
6.10.9 PTH Effect on Heart
6.11 Calcitonin and Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide
6.11.1 Functions of Calcitonin and Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide
6.12 The Vitamin D3 Endocrine System (Cholecalciferol)
6.12.1 Th Most Important Active Metabolites of Vitamin D
6.12.2 Conversion of Vitamin D To active Forms
6.12.3 Physiological Functions of Active Vitamin D
6.13 PTH-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 System
6.14 Progenitor/Stem Cell of Parathyroid Glands: Thymus Generates Precursor Cells for the Parathyroid Cells
6.15 Conclusion
References
7: Adrenal Glands, Pineal Gland, and the Circadian Rhythm: Structure and Physiology
7.1 Introduction: An Admirable Role of the Adrenal and Pineal Glands in Circadian Rhythm
7.2 Suprachiasmatic Nucleus in the Hypothalamus
7.3 Structure of Adrenal Glands
7.3.1 Adrenocortical Stem/Progenitor Cells
7.3.2 The Adrenal Medulla
7.3.2.1 The Catecholamines
7.3.2.2 Regulation of Catecholamine Secretion
7.3.2.3 Concentration of Adrenaline
7.3.2.4 Receptors of Catecholamines
7.3.2.5 Catecholamine Physiological Functions
7.3.2.6 Adrenomedullin (AM)
7.3.3 The Adrenal Cortex
7.3.3.1 Extra-Adrenal Organs and Tissues Synthesize Local Glucocorticoids and Mineralocorticoids
7.3.3.2 Characteristics of Adrenal´s Cortex Hormones
7.3.3.3 The Adrenal Cortex Zones
Zona Reticularis
Zona Fasciculata
Physiological Functions of the Zona Fasciculata Hormones
Zona Glomerulosa
Main Functions of Aldosterone
Regulation of Aldosterone Secretion
Regulation of the Total Adrenal Cortex
7.3.3.4 Adrenal Stem Cells: Stress-Inducible Stem Cells in Adrenal Glands
7.4 Pineal Gland
7.4.1 Pineal Size and Cellular Structure
7.4.2 Pineal Gland Hormones
7.4.3 Melatonin Synthesis
7.4.4 Pineal Gland Functions and the Physiological Roles of Melatonin
7.4.5 Regulation of Melatonin Secretion
7.4.6 Stem Cell/Progenitors in Pineal Gland
7.5 Conclusion
References
8: Endocrine Pancreas and Glucose Metabolism
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Structure of Pancreatic Islets
8.3 Pancreatic Innervation
8.4 Beta Cell Hormones
8.4.1 Insulin and C-Peptide
8.4.2 Physiological and Metabolic Functions of Insulin
8.4.3 Glucose Transporters
8.4.4 Carbohydrate Metabolism
8.4.4.1 Carbohydrate Metabolism in the Liver
8.4.4.2 Carbohydrate Metabolism in the Muscle Tissues
8.4.4.3 Carbohydrate Metabolism in Adipose Tissue
8.4.5 Protein Metabolism
8.4.5.1 Protein Metabolism in the Liver
8.4.5.2 Protein Metabolism in Muscle Tissue
8.4.6 Fat Metabolism
8.4.6.1 Fat Metabolism in the Liver
8.4.6.2 Fat Metabolism in the Muscles
8.4.6.3 Fat Metabolism in Adipose Tissue
8.4.7 Insulin Maintains Weight
8.4.8 Updates on Insulin Physiology on Brain: Source and Target
8.4.8.1 Is Brain a Source of Insulin/C-Peptides?
8.4.8.2 Local Synthesis of Insulin in the Brain
8.4.8.3 Insulin Physiology on Brain
8.4.9 Effect of Insulin Imbalance on Cardiovascular Performance
8.4.10 Other Functions
8.5 Factors Affecting Insulin Secretion
8.6 Circadian Clocks and Insulin
8.7 The Therapeutic Utility of Insulin in Diabetes, and the Challenges and Status of Oral Insulin Therapy
8.8 View of Point on the Synthesis and Physiology of Sex Steroids in Pancreatic -Cells
8.8.1 Proof of Local Islet Steroidogenesis
8.8.2 Sex Steroids Play Roles in β Cell Function, Growth, and Survival
8.9 Alpha Cell Hormones
8.9.1 Glucagon
8.9.2 Physiological Functions of Glucagon
8.9.2.1 Physiological Functions of Glucagon on the Liver: On the Carbohydrates
8.9.2.2 Effects of Glucagon on the Fat
8.9.2.3 Proteolytic Effect of Glucagon on Proteins
8.9.2.4 Novel View of Glucagon on Brain
8.9.2.5 Other Functions
8.9.3 Regulation of Glucagon Secretion
8.10 Insulin and Glucagon Degradation
8.11 Somatostatin (SS)
8.11.1 Physiological Functions of Somatostatin
8.11.2 As Neurohormone
8.11.3 As Neuromodulator Peptide/Neurotransmitter
8.11.4 As Gastrointestinal Local Hormone
8.12 Pancreatic Polypeptide Hormone
8.12.1 Sources of Pancreatic Polypeptide Hormone
8.12.2 Pancreatic Polypeptide Receptors
8.12.3 Pancreatic Polypeptide Hormone Regulating Factors
8.13 A Glance, Pancreatic Progenitor/Stem Cells: Beta Cell´s Self-Renewal and Promising Strategy for Diabetes
8.14 Conclusion
References
9: Regulation of Male and Female Reproductive Functions
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Gonad Hormones and Male Reproduction
9.2.1 Testes Structure
9.2.2 External Location of Tests
9.2.3 Puberty
9.2.4 Physiological Functions of the Testicles
9.2.4.1 Seminiferous Tubules
Sex Cells (Spermatogonia and Spermatogenesis)
Spermiogenesis and Spermiogenesis
Somatic Cells of the Testes (Functions of Sertoli Cells and Peritubular)
Stages of Spermatogenesis
The Seminiferous Tubules Contain Three Types of Cells
9.2.4.2 Endocrine Cells of the Testes (Interstitial Tissue)
Endocrine Leydig Cells
9.2.4.3 Characteristics of Androgens
9.2.4.4 Sexual and Reproductive Functions of the Androgens
Sexual and Reproductive Functions
9.2.4.5 Anabolic Functions of Androgens
9.2.4.6 Recent Roles of Androgens in Female
9.2.4.7 Regulation of Testicular Function
Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Seminiferous Tubule Axis
The Domination Roles of Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Leydig Cell Axis
9.3 Ovarian Hormones and Reproduction
9.3.1 Ovaries: Tissue Zones of the Ovaries
9.3.2 Puberty in Females
9.3.3 Ovaries Functions
9.3.3.1 Exocrine Function
9.3.3.2 Endocrine Function
9.3.3.3 Main Sex Hormones and Sources
Sources of Androgens in the Male
Sources of Androgens in the Females
Sources of Estrogen Synthesis
Sources of Progestin
Steroidal Sex Hormones
Chemical Structure of the Steroid Hormones
9.3.4 Role of the Endometrium
9.3.5 Regulation of Ovarian Function
9.3.6 Phases of the Ovarian Cycle
9.3.6.1 Pre-ovulatory Phase (Follicular Phase)
9.3.6.2 Ovulation Phase
9.3.6.3 Post-ovulatory Phase
Corpus Luteum Phase
9.3.6.4 Corpus Albicans
9.3.7 Regulation of the Ovulatory Cycle (Figs. 9.21 and 9.22)
9.3.8 Reasons for Corpus Luteum Degradation and Reduced Progesterone
9.3.9 Functions of the Ovarian Hormones After Puberty
9.3.9.1 Functions of Estrogens
9.3.9.2 Functions of Progesterone
New Novel Functions of Progesterone
9.3.9.3 Extra-Regulating Roles of Local Hormones Inhibin, Activin, and Follistatin on the Physiology of the Gonads
9.3.9.4 Physiological Functions and Regulation
9.3.10 Update on Minipuberty: The Fetal Hypothalamus-Pituitary Gonadal Axis
9.3.11 New Concepts in Gametogenesis
9.3.11.1 Update on Spermatogenesis: Quantitative and Qualitative Factors
Temperature
Obesity
The Role of Retinoid-Related Orphan Receptor (ROR)
9.3.11.2 Emerging Concept of Oogenesis
9.3.12 Physiology of Menopause and Andropause
9.3.13 Stem Cells and Bi-Potential Progenitor Structure Genital Ridge
9.4 Conclusion
References
10: Adipose Tissue as an Endocrine Organ and a Glance on Local Hormones
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Adipose Tissue as an Endocrine Tissue
10.3 Adipose Tissue Hormones (Adipokines)
10.3.1 Leptin, Adiponectin, Visfatin, Resistin
10.3.2 Other Adipokines (Apelin, Chemerin, Adipsin, Kisspeptin)
10.4 Functions of Adipokines
10.4.1 Regulatory Role of Adipokines in Energy Homeostasis
10.4.2 Adipokines and Metabolic Disorders
10.4.3 Adipokines Role in Appetite
10.4.4 Adipokines and Sleep Disorders
10.4.5 Adipose Tissues Is a Member in Immune System: Role of Leptin
10.4.6 Role of Adipokines as a Part of Circadian Clocks
10.4.7 Effect of Adipokines on Neuroendocrine Functions
10.4.8 Relation of Adipokines with the Hypothalamus Releasing and Pituitary Hormones
10.4.9 Effects of Adipokines on Reproduction
10.4.10 Adipokines Participate in Hematopoiesis and Cardiovascular System
10.4.11 Adipokines Influence Bone Turnover
10.4.12 Adipokines and the Skin
10.4.13 Adipokines Has Double Proliferative and Apoptotic Actions
10.4.14 Novel Adipocytokines: Pathogenesis, Treatment, and as Biomarkers
10.5 A Glance on Adipose Tissue Stem Cells as New Therapeutics Techniques
10.6 Local Hormones
10.6.1 Prostaglandins
10.6.1.1 Main Functions of Prostaglandins
10.6.2 Gastrointestinal Mucosa Hormones
10.6.3 Digestive Tract Stimulating Hormones
10.6.3.1 Adrenomedullin (AM) and Proadrenomedullin
10.6.3.2 Gastrin
10.6.3.3 Ghrelin
10.6.3.4 Secretin
10.6.3.5 Cholecystokinin
10.6.4 Digestion-Inhibiting Hormones
10.6.4.1 Somatostatin
10.6.4.2 Glucagon
10.6.4.3 Enterogastrone
10.6.5 Kidneys Hormones
10.6.5.1 Vitamin D Is a Steroid Hormone
10.6.5.2 Stimulating Factor (ESF)
10.6.5.3 Renin
10.6.6 Ovaries and Testes Local Hormones
10.6.7 Thymus Gland Hormones
10.6.7.1 Thymosin
Thymosin Alpha 1
Thymosin β4
Thymosin β10
10.6.7.2 Thymopoietin
10.6.8 Placenta Hormones
References