Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
List of maps
List of tables
List of figures
General abbreviations
Data source abbreviations
1. Introduction: Synchronic Phula in diachronic perspective
1.1. The Phula hypothesis
1.1.1. Falsifiability and the Phula hypothesis
1.1.2. Chapter overview
1.2. Historical background
1.2.1. Phula, Puzu, Yizu and other classifications
1.2.2. The Phula-Lolo distinction in historical records
1.2.3. Retracing Phula migration patterns from oral and written histories
1.2.3.1. Macro-migration patterns
1.2.3.2. Micro-migration patterns
1.2.4. Previous research on the Phula languages
1.3. Field data orientation
1.3.1. Administrative orientation of Phula villages
1.3.2. Fieldwork data point locations
1.3.3. Overview of field data collection
1.3.4. External data sources
1.4. Research scope, assumptions and approach
1.4.1. Theoretical assumptions: toward an integrative dialectology
1.4.2. On the viability of integrational standards for language definition
1.4.3. Research scope and limitations
1.5. Argument structure and organization
2. Research background: Field methods, theory, and dialectology
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Nature and scope of the fieldwork
2.2.1. Navigating research approval and fieldwork sponsorship
2.2.2. Navigating administrative terrain
2.2.3. Navigating data point travel
2.2.4. Scope of data collection
2.2.5. Data reciprocity with language communities
2.2.6. Digital archiving and analysis
2.3. Recording equipment and use
2.3.1. Overview of recording equipment
2.3.2. Recording scenarios and setup
2.3.3. Evaluation of equipment and recording methods
2.4. Elicitation instruments and methodology
2.4.1. Sociolinguistic questionnaires
2.4.1.1. Questionnaire goals and design
2.4.1.2. Questionnaire administration
2.4.1.3. Working revisions
2.4.2. Wordlist design and elicitation
2.4.2.1. Wordlist design
2.4.2.2. Elicitation printouts
2.4.2.3. Consultant selection and screening
2.4.2.4. Elicitation framing
2.4.2.5. Cognate fishing
2.4.2.6. Use of elicitation illustrations
2.4.2.7. Non-IPA Chinese phonetic conventions
2.4.2.8. Pronunciation imitation
2.4.2.9. Working revisions
2.4.3. Natural text elicitation
2.5. Assessing identity, demography and vitality
2.5.1. Ethnic identity research
2.5.2. Demographic research
2.5.3. Geolinguistic mapping research
2.5.4. Endangerment, vitality, and language contact research
2.6. Assessing dialect intelligibility and internal contact
2.6.1. Perceptual dialectology
2.6.2. Recorded text testing and the high-intelligibility threshold
2.6.3. Core lexical comparison and the low-intelligibility threshold
2.7. Assessing language variation and change
2.7.1. Phonological description in light of language variation
2.7.2. Grammaticalization, lexicalization and variational semantics
2.7.3. The comparative method
2.8. Assessing phylogenetic relationships
2.8.1. Clustering, subgrouping and phylogenetic situation
2.8.2. Baileyan dialectology and the dynamic wave model
2.8.3. Tree diagrams and other models
2.8.4. The Neighbor-Net algorithm and distance-based relationships
2.9. An experiment in triadic dialectics: ecology-phylogeny-ontogeny
3. Synchronic language definitions: Identity, intelligibility, contact
3.1. Preliminaries
3.2. Phula ethnic identities
3.2.1. West-regional identities
3.2.2. South-central identities
3.2.3. North-central identities
3.2.4. East-regional identities
3.2.5. Trends and observations
3.3. Core lexical comparisons
3.3.1. West-regional comparisons
3.3.2. South-central comparisons
3.3.3. North-central comparisons
3.3.4. East-regional comparisons
3.3.5. Perspective
3.4. Recorded text testing
3.4.1. West-regional results
3.4.2. South-central results
3.4.3. North-central testing results
3.4.4. East-regional testing results
3.5. Reported dialect perceptions and intelligibility indices
3.5.1. West-regional perceptions and indices
3.5.2. South-central perceptions and indices
3.5.3. North-central perceptions and indices
3.5.4. East-regional perceptions and indices
3.6. Language contact issues
3.6.1. External contact
3.6.2. Internal contact
3.7. Integrating identity, contact, and intelligibility
3.7.1. West-regional integration
3.7.2. South-central integration
3.7.3. North-central integration
3.7.4. East-regional integration
3.8. Conclusion: The synchronic Phula languages
3.8.1. Phala [ISO 639-3: ypa]
3.8.2. Phola [ISO 639-3: ypg]
3.8.3. Phola, Alo [ISO 639-3: ypo]
3.8.4. Muji, Qila [ISO 639-3: ymq]
3.8.5. Muji, Southern [ISO 639-3: ymc]
3.8.6. Muji, Northern [ISO 639-3: ymx]
3.8.7. Muzi [ISO 639-3: ymz]
3.8.8. Bokha [ISO 639-3: ybk]
3.8.9. Phuma [ISO 639-3: ypm]
3.8.10. Alugu [ISO 639-3: aub]
3.8.11. Phupa [ISO 639-3: ypp]
3.8.12. Phupha [ISO 639-3: yph]
3.8.13. Phuza [ISO 639-3: ypz]
3.8.14. Phowa, Ani [ISO 639-3: ypn]
3.8.15. Phowa, Labo [ISO 639-3: ypb]
3.8.16. Phowa, Hlepho [ISO 639-3: yhl]
3.8.17. Azha [ISO 639-3: aza]
3.8.18. Zokhuo [ISO 639-3: yzk]
3.8.19. Khlula [ISO 639-3: ykl]
3.8.20. Moji [ISO 639-3: ymi]
3.8.21. Phukha [ISO 639-3: phh]
3.8.22. Laghuu [ISO 639-3: lgh]
3.8.23. Pholo [ISO 639-3: yip]
3.8.24. Thopho [ISO 639-3: ytp]
4. Ethnolinguistic vitality: Contact, endangerment and shift
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Phola and Alo
4.2.1. Luodie and Natang
4.2.2. Adipo
4.3. Phala
4.4. Muji, Southern
4.4.1. Pujiazhai
4.4.2. Shizitou
4.5. Muji, Northern
4.5.1. Xiepo
4.5.2. Loushuidong
4.6. Muzi
4.6.1. Nuoguzhai
4.6.2. Malutang
4.7. Bokha
4.7.1. Yibaizu
4.7.2. Dixibei
4.8. Phuma
4.9. Alugu
4.10. Phupa
4.11. Phupha
4.12. Phuza
4.13. Muji, Qila
4.14. Phowa, Ani
4.15. Phowa, Labo
4.15.1. Jiajie and Lugumu
4.15.2. Wudupi
4.16. Phowa, Hlepho
4.16.1. Feizuke
4.16.2. Chekabai
4.16.3. Weibazhu/Xiaozhai
4.16.4. Suozhiwan
4.16.5. Meizichong
4.17. Azha
4.17.1. Luojiayi, Xiaopingba and Huangzhai
4.17.2. Faduke Dazhai
4.18. Zokhuo
4.19. Khlula
4.19.1. Laozhai
4.19.2. Maxi
4.20. Laghuu and Phukha
4.21. Moji
4.22. Pholo
4.22.1. Xiji
4.22.2. Fayixiazhai
4.22.3. Shangxinzhai
4.23. Thopho
4.24. Overview of Phula ethnolinguistic vitality
5. Phula phonologies: Five representative sketches
5.1. Preliminaries
5.1.1. General Phonological Features
5.1.2. Structure of the sketches
5.2. Hlepho-FZK and the Phowa Clade
5.2.1. Syllable
5.2.2. Consonant Initials
5.2.3. Vowel Finals
5.2.4. Tone
5.2.5. Phonation
5.3. Muji-PJZ and the Muji Clade
5.3.1. Syllable
5.3.2. Consonant Initials
5.3.3. Vowel Finals
5.3.4. Tone
5.4. Phuza-BJB and the Downriver Phula clade
5.4.1. Syllable
5.4.2. Consonant initials
5.4.3. Vowel Finals
5.4.4. Tone
5.5. Phola-LDC and the Upriver Phula clade
5.5.1. Syllable
5.5.2. Consonant initials
5.5.3. Vowel Finals
5.5.4. Tone
5.5.5. Phonation
5.6. Azha Phonology
5.6.1. Syllable
5.6.2. Consonant Initials
5.6.3. Vowel Finals
5.6.4. Tone
5.7. Summary
6. The language clades of Phula Proper: Establishing historical subgroupings
6.1. Methodology for historical subgrouping
6.1.1. Overview of Ngwi tone
6.1.2. Overview of Proto-Ngwi initial classes and guide to notation
6.1.3. Overview of Phula tonal reflexes
6.2. A distance-based network of Phula languages
6.2.1. Neighbor-Net and distance-based phylogenetic relationships
6.2.2. The Phula neighbor network and preliminary subgroupings
6.3. The Muji meso-clade
6.3.1. Tone system innovations
6.3.1.1. Tone-class 1
6.3.1.2. Tone-class 2
6.3.1.3. Tone-class 3
6.3.1.4. The checked tone classes
6.3.2. Other independent innovations
6.3.2.1. Phonological innovations
6.3.2.2. Morphological innovations
6.3.2.3. Lexico-semantic innovations
6.3.3. Historical dialectology
6.4. The Phowa meso-clade
6.4.1. Tone system innovations
6.4.1.1. Tone-class 1
6.4.1.2. Tone-class 2
6.4.1.3. Tone-class 3
6.4.1.4. The checked-tone classes
6.4.2. Other Innovations
6.4.3. Historical dialectology
6.5. The Highland Phula macro-clade
6.5.1. Lexico-semantic innovations
6.5.2. Phonological innovations
6.6. The Riverine Phula macro-clade
6.6.1. Tone system developments
6.6.1.1. Tone-class 1
6.6.1.2. Tone-class 2
6.6.1.3. Tone-class 3
6.6.1.4. The checked tone classes
6.6.2. Other Innovations
6.6.2.1. Phola-Phala (Upriver Phula)
6.6.2.2. Phupha-Alugu
6.6.2.3. Phuza-Phupa
6.6.3. Historical dialectology
6.7. Conclusion
7. Phula and Southeastern Ngwi: Sani, Axi, Azhe, Azha, Nisu, and Phula Proper
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Expanded neighbor network
7.3. Southeastern Ngwi
7.3.1. Permutations of the alveolar-lateral cluster innovation
7.3.2. Sani, Axi, Azhe, Azha, Southeastern Ngwi and Central Ngwi
7.3.3. Nisu, Southeastern Ngwi and Northern Ngwi
7.3.4. Summary of preliminary subgrouping criteria for SE Ngwi
7.4. Azha, Azhe and Sani-Axi
7.4.1. The status of Azha
7.4.2. The Sani-Axi clade
7.4.3. Tone system developments for Sani-Axi-Azhe-Azha
7.4.3.1. Tone-class 1
7.4.3.2. Tone-class 2
7.4.3.3. Tone-class 3
7.4.3.4. The *checked tone classes
7.4.4. Working conclusion on the internal relationships of the SA clade
7.5. Pholo
7.6. Conclusions
8. Conclusion: Diachronic Phula in synchronic perspective
8.1. Review
8.1.1. Phula language definition as chiastic dialectic
8.1.2. Folk Phula and Phula Proper
8.2. The Riverine Phula Macro-clade in synchronic perspective
8.2.1. Riverine Phula demographics and distribution
8.2.1.1. Upriver demographics and distribution
8.2.1.2. Downriver demographics and distribution
8.2.2. Riverine Phula perceptual dialectology
8.2.2.1. Upriver perceptual dialectology
8.2.2.2. Downriver perceptual dialectology
8.3. The Muji meso-clade in synchronic perspective
8.3.1. Current demographics and distribution of the Muji meso-clade
8.3.2. Muji meso-clade perceptual dialectology by synchronic language
8.4. The Phowa meso-clade in synchronic perspective
8.4.1. Current demographics and distribution of the Phowa meso-clade
8.4.2. Phowa meso-clade perceptual dialectology by language
8.5. Review of contributions and key findings
8.5.1. Contributions to areal language recognition
8.5.2. Contributions to research on areal language endangerment
8.5.3. Contributions to Ngwi linguistics and regional ethnohistory
8.5.4. Contributions to language contact research
8.5.5. Contributions to ethnic identity research
8.5.6. Contributions to tone system analysis
8.5.7. Contributions to distance-based phylogenetics
8.5.8. Contributions to intelligibility testing
8.5.9. Contributions to regional demography
8.5.10. Contributions to geolinguistics
8.5.11. Contributions to field methods in linguistic survey
8.5.12. Toward a hermeneutic dialectology
8.5.13. Toward a chiastic dialectic model of reasoning
8.6. Extra-disciplinary perspectives on neglected diversity
8.6.1. Neglected diversity and onomastic ambiguity
8.6.2. Neglected diversity, homoplasy and genetics
8.6.3. Neglected diversity and the survival of the cutest
8.7. Suggestions for future studies
8.7.1. Remaining research questions
8.7.2. New research suggestions
8.8. Coda
Appendix A: Sociolinguistic questionnaires
Appendix B: Lexical elicitation datasheet sample
Appendix C: Similarity and distance matrices
Appendix D: Sample RTT translations
Notes
References
Index