Cover
Half Title
Also of interest
Carbon Dioxide Utilization: Transformations
Copyright
About the Editors
Contents
List of contributing authors
Part IV: Catalytic reactions of CO2
15. Catalysts for the conversion of CO2 to cyclic and polycarbonates
15.1 Introduction
15.1.1 Use and importance of cyclic and polycarbonates
15.1.2 Why is cyclic and polycarbonate synthesis via CDU green?
15.2 Reaction mechanisms for cyclic and polycarbonate formation from CO2 and epoxides
15.3 Catalysts for cyclic and polycarbonate formation
15.3.1 Non-metal (and electrochemical) systems for cyclic carbonate formation
15.3.2 Metal catalysts for cyclic carbonate formation
15.3.3 Metal catalysts for polycarbonate formation
15.3.4 Metal catalysts for cyclic and polycarbonate formation
15.4 Summary and concluding remarks
References
16. Sustainable feedstock for conversion of CO2 to cyclic and polycarbonates
16.1 General introduction
16.2 Biobased cyclic carbonates
16.2.1 Cyclic carbonates derived from terpene precursors
16.2.2 Cyclic carbonates derived from sugars
16.2.3 Cyclic carbonates derived from fatty acids
16.2.4 Cyclic carbonates derived from other biobased compounds
16.3 Polycarbonates derived from renewable compounds
16.3.1 From alkylene oxide monomers
16.3.2 From terpene-based monomers
16.3.3 From lipids
16.4 Applications of biobased polycarbonates
16.5 Conclusions and outlook
References
17. Carbon dioxide hydrogenation to formic acid
17. 1Introduction
17.2 General aspects of CO2 hydrogenation to FA
17.2.1 Thermodynamic considerations
17.2.2 Kinetic considerations
17.3 Development of catalytic systems
17.3.1 Catalysts with phospine-based ligand architecture
17.3.2 Catalysts with pincer-based ligand architecture
17.3.3 Catalysts with N-heterocyclic-carbene-based ligand architecture
17.3.4 Half sandwich complexes as catalyst for the hydrogenation of CO2
17.4 Conclusions
Bibliography
18. CO2 Hydrogenation to Methanol and Dimethyl Ether
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Importance and main uses of methanol and dimethyl ether
18.3 Thermodynamic and kinetic considerations
18.4 Main catalysts for CO2 hydrogenation
18.5 Possible Intermediates and reaction pathway
18.6 Bifunctional catalysts for coupling methanol synthesis from CO2 and the subsequent dehydration to dimethyl ether
18.7 Industrial plant for CO2 hydrogenation to methanol in Iceland
Bibliography
19. Towards sustainable methanol from industrial CO2 sources
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Processes for methanol synthesis
19.2.1 State of the art of conventional methanol synthesis
19.2.2 Innovations in methanol synthesis process
19.3 CO2 utilisation from industrial sources
19.3.1 Case of CO2 re-use from ammonia plant: Process design and energy integration
19.3.1.1 Model description
CO2 capture
Water/CO2 co-electrolysis
Methanol synthesis
19.3.1.2 Energy integration
19.3.1.3 Efficiency calculation
19.3.2 Case of CO2 re-use from other industries
19.3.2.1 Ethanol industry
19.3.2.2 Natural gas industry
19.3.2.3 Ethylene industry
19.3.2.4 Steel mills
19.3.2.5 Cement industry
19.3.2.6 Power industry
19.4 Economic study of methanol from CO2
19.5 Conclusions
Bibliography
20. CO2 hydrogenation to methane
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Power-to-gas systems
20.3 Conversion chains of power-to-gas
20.3.1 Low temperature electrolysis
20.3.2 High temperature electrolysis
20.3.3 Hydrogen injection into the gas grid
20.4 The methanation reaction: Thermodynamics and kinetics
20.5 Catalytic reactors technologies
20.6 Reactor modelling, simulation and optimisation
20.7 Demonstration projects
20.8 Techno-economic assessment and regulations
20.8.1 Production costs of hydrogen and methane
20.8.2 Regulatory issues
2.9 Conclusion
References
21. FischerβTropsch synthesis using CO2
21.1 Introduction
21.1.1 Background
21.1.2 Power-to-X
22.2 Reaction mechanism
21.2.1 FTS from CO2 via RWGS
21.2.2 Synthesis of alternative products
21.3 Catalysts
21.3.1 Cobalt
21.3.2 Iron
21.4 Reactors
21.4.1 Gas-phase reactors
21.4.2 Liquid-phase FischerβTropsch synthesis
21.5 Future perspectives
References
Part V: Electrochemical reactions of CO2
22. Electrochemical conversion of CO2 into formate or formic acid
22.1 Introduction
22.1.1 Background
22.1.2 Electrochemical reduction of CO2
22.1.3 Current status of formic acid industry
22.2 Electrochemical synthesis of formate and formic acid
22.2.1 Electrocatalysts
22.2.1.1 Lead (Pb)
22.2.1.2 Tin (Sn)
22.2.1.3 Indium (In)
22.2.1.4 Copper (Cu)
22.2.1.5 Bismuth (Bi)
22.2.1.6 Zinc (Zn)
22.2.1.7 Cobalt
22.2.1.8 Carbon
22.2.1.9 Other catalysts
22.2.2 Electrolyte
22.2.3 Temperature and pressure
22.3 Challenges and future opportunities
References
23. Electrochemical conversion of CO2 to carbon monoxide
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Gold
23.3 Silver
23.4 Metal-free and transition metal-doped nitrogen-doped carbons
23.5 Summary and prospects
References
24. Electrochemical conversion of CO2 into alcohols
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Electrocatalysts
24.2.1 Cu-based
24.2.3 Noble metals
24.2.2 Other transition metals
24.2.4 Post-transition metals
24.3 Electrolytes
24.3.1 Liquid electrolytes
24.3.1.1 Aqueous
24.3.1.2 Non-aqueous
24.3.1.3 Ionic liquids
24.3.2 Solid electrolyte
24.3.2.1 Solid polymer
24.3.2.2 Solid oxide
24.4 Electrochemical cells
24.4.1 Liquid-phase CO2 conversion
24.4.1.1 Cell configuration
24.4.1.2 Electrode structure
24.4.2 Gas-phase CO2 conversion
24.4.2.1 Polymer electrolyte membrane cell
24.4.2.2 Solid oxide electrolyte cell
24.5 Operating conditions
24.5.1 Liquid-phase CO2 conversion
24.5.1.1 pH
24.5.1.2 Temperature
24.5.1.3 Pressure
24.5.2 Gas-phase CO2 conversion
24.5.2.1 Potential
24.5.2.2 Temperature
24.5.2.3 H2/CO2 ratio
24.5.2.4 Flow rate
24.6 Conclusions
24.7 Prospects and challenges
References
25. Electrochemical conversion of CO2 into hydrocarbons
25.1 Introduction
25.1.1 Copper β an electrode for CO2 reduction
25.2 Classification of metals for methane formation
25.2.1 Effect of process conditions for methane formation
25.2.2 Effect of nanostructures for methane formation
25.2.3 Effect of bimetals and alloys for methane formation
25.2.4 Effect of metal oxides for methane formation
25.2.5 Metals other than Cu for methane formation (Ru, Pt, Sn, Pb)
25.2.6 Mechanism of methane formation
25.3 Classification of metals based on ethylene formation
25.3.1 Effect of process conditions for ethylene formation
25.3.2 Effect of nanostructures for ethylene formation
25.3.3 Effect of bimetals and alloys for ethylene formation
25.3.4 Effect of metal oxides for ethylene formation
25.3.5 Computational aspect for enhancement of ethylene formation
25.4 Conclusion
References
26. Non-reductive CO2 electrochemistry
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Cell parameters
26.3 Electrochemical carboxylation reactions
26.3.1 Dimerisation of CO2 to oxalate
26.3.2 Carboxylation of alkenes (alkyl, aryl)
26.3.2.1 Dicarboxylation
26.3.2.2 Monocarboxylation
26.3.3 Carboxylation of alkynes (alkyl, aryl)
26.3.4 Carboxylation of conjugated systems
26.3.5 Carboxylation of carbonyls and imines
26.3.6 Carboxylation of alkyl, benzyl, aryl and alkenyl halides
26.4 Summary of carboxylation approaches and future outlook
References
27. Carbon dioxide utilisation by bioelectrochemical systems through microbial electrochemicals synthesis
27.1 Introduction
27.1.1 What are bioelectrochemical systems
27.1.2 What is microbial electrochemical synthesis
27.1.3 Advantages and challenges of bioconversion of CO2
27.2 Principles and reaction pathways for CO2 utilisation in BES
27.2.1 Electron transfer mechanisms in CO2-reducing biocathodes
27.2.2 Microbial communities and reaction pathways in MES
27.2.2.1 Pure cultures and reaction pathways for CO2 conversion
27.2.2.2 Mixed microbial communities
27.2.3 Parameters influencing products and efficiency of CO2 conversion in BES
27.2.3.1 Impact of applied potential
27.2.3.2 Impact of pH
27.2.3.3 Impact of reactor design: Batch versus continuous
27.2.4 Reactor design and cell configurations
27.2.4.1 MES cell configuration
27.2.4.2 Reactor design for product extraction and continuous production
27.2.5 Integrated and hybrid MES for CO2 utilisation
27.2.5.1 MES integrated with renewable electricity
27.2.5.2 Artificial photosynthesis utilising hybrid inorganic-MES
27.3 Concluding remarks and perspectives
References
Part VI: Photo- and plasma induced reactions of CO2
28. Plasma-based CO2 conversion
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Plasma reactor types for CO2 conversion
28.2.1 Dielectric barrier discharge (DBD)
28.2.2 Microwave plasma
28.2.3 Gliding arc discharge
28.2.4 Other plasma types used for CO2 conversion
28.2.5 Principle of plasma catalysis
28.3 CO2 conversion processes: Reactions, reactors and performance
28.3.1 CO2 splitting
28.3.1.1 Mechanisms of CO2 dissociation
28.3.1.2 Dissociation performance in different plasma approaches
28.3.2 Plasma conversion of CO2 with CH4
28.3.2.1 Plasma conversion
28.3.2.2 Plasma catalysis
28.3.3 Plasma CO2 hydrogenation
28.3.3.1 Plasma conversion
28.3.3.2 Plasma catalysis
28.3.4 CO2 with water
28.3.4.1 Plasma conversion
28.3.4.2 Plasma catalysis
28.4 Summary and steps to be taken for further improvement
References
29. Photocatalytic approaches for converting CO2 into fuels and feedstocks
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Materials
29.2.1 TiO2
29.2.2 CuOx and other composites with TiO2
29.2.3 Noble and platinum-group metals on TiO2
29.2.4 WO3 and Bi2WO6
29.2.5 In2O3 and InNbO4
29.2.6 BiOBr, BiOI and BiVO4
29.2.7 Metal sulphides
29.2.8 C3N4, MOFs and zeolites
29.3 Summary and future outlook
References
30. Photochemical reduction of CO2 with metal-based systems
30.1 Inroduction
30.2 Rhenium-containing catalysts
30.3 Manganese-based electrocatalysts
30.4 Ruthenium-containing catalysts
30.5 Photocatalytic systems with Earth-abundant components
30.6 Iron-, Cobalt-, Nickel-, Zinc-containing catalysts and photosensitisers
30.7 Heterogeneous catalytic systems
30.8 Photoelectrochemical cells
30.9 Modern spectroscopic methods of studying catalytic mechanisms
References
Index