Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Part I: The Multidisciplinary Approach to Conservation
Building Peace to Save Nature: Multi-disciplinary Approaches to Managing Conflicts in Conservation
An Introduction to Conflicts in Conservation
Understanding Conservation Conflicts
Box 1 Waterbirds and Transboundary Conflicts
Multi-disciplinary Approaches and Perspectives on Conservation Conflicts
A Natural Sciences Perspective
A Social Sciences Perspective
Box 2 Understanding Staging Site Selection of Common Cranes Along the Western-European Flyway to Guide Crop Damage Prevention
Box 3 Using Ethnography to Gain a Deeper Understanding of Raptor-Grouse Conflicts in Scotland, UK
A Socio-Economic Perspective
Box 4 Experimental Games to Understand Farmer Behaviour in Relation to Elephant Conflict Management Efforts in Gabon
A Political Sciences Perspective
Box 5 Taking an Armed Conflicts Approach to Conservation Conflicts
Socio-Ecological Modelling and Game-Theoretic Approaches
The Cognitive Sciences Perspective
Applying Multi-disciplinary Approaches to Conflicts in the Field: Asking the Right Questions
References
Transcending the Boundaries of Conservation and Community Development to Achieve Long-Term Sustainability for People and Planet
Introduction
Learning Objectives
Challenges to Past and Current Strategies
Romanticizing Community
Homogenous Perspectives
Imbalance of Benefits
Illusion of Involvement
Social-Ecological Systems
Social Aspects
Principles Required for Social Systems to Function
Equality vs. Equity: Relationships Between Elements of a Social System
Values in a Social System and the Governance Structures Upholding Them
Economics of Natural Capital
Ecological Aspects
Living Resources
Non-living Resources
Interactions Between Ecological Elements
Systems Thinking
Scenario 1
Community Engagement Approach
Access
Box 1 Power Ranking and Radargrams
Connect
Box 2 Ensuring Inclusivity
Team
Box 3 Co-designing Activities Through Backward Mapping
Implement
Verify
Evolve
Recognizing Technical, Systemic, and Constitutive Problems in Community-Driven Conservation Initiatives
African People and Wildlife Case Study
Technical Problems
Systemic Problems
Constitutive Problems
Conclusion
Scenario 2
References
The Challenges of Conserving Biodiversity: A Spotlight on Southeast Asia
Introduction
Wildlife Trade
Box 1 Poaching as Income
Box 2 The Role of Captive Institutes in Breeding and Reintroductions
Habitat Loss
Human-Wildlife Conflict
Box 3 Human-Tiger Conflict with Forest-Edge Communities
Box 4 Human-Snake Conflict in Indonesia
Threats to Biodiversity in Aquatic Ecosystems
Additional Threats
Conclusion
References
Governance and Challenges of Wildlife Conservation and Management in Kenya
Introduction
Significance of Tourism and Wildlife Sectors in Kenya
Conservation Management and Approaches in Kenya
Informal Conservation Model
Protected Area (PA) Model
Community-Based Conservation Approach (CBCA)
Stakeholder Analysis and Involvement in Wildlife Conservation and Management in Kenya
Stakeholder Analysis and Involvement
Policy and Legal Framework of Wildlife Conservation and Management in Kenya
Evolution of Wildlife Policies and Legislation
Current Legal Frameworks Supporting Wildlife Conservation and Management in Kenya
Challenges of Wildlife Conservation and Management in Kenya
Causes of Loss and Fragmentation of Wildlife Habitat in Kenya
Human Population Growth
Land Tenure Reforms and Policies
Human-Wildlife Conflict (HWC)
Illegal and Unsustainable Off-Take of Wildlife and the Bushmeat Trade
Climate Change
Invasive Alien Plant Species
Insights into Workable Solutions to Wildlife Conservation and Management in Kenya
Introduction
Opportunities for Strengthening Wildlife Conservation and Management in Kenya
Create More Space for Wildlife
Social Support for Conservation
Harness Local CommunitiesΒ΄ Goodwill
Participatory or Collaborative Wildlife Management Approach
Socio-economic Empowerment of the Rural Communities
Equitable and Effective Wildlife Benefit-Sharing Mechanisms Among Partners
Promotion of Community-Based Wildlife Management Models
Ensuring Public Participation in the Establishment of PAs
Ensuring Effective Legal Frameworks and Deterrents
Other Opportunities
Strengthening of the Science-Policy-Practice Interface
Harmonization of Existing Wildlife and Other Relevant Sectoral Policies and Legislation
Decentralization of Wildlife Conservation Operations
Conservation Education
Climate
Conclusion
References
Wildlife Conservation Law
Introduction
General Information and Definitions
Types of Law
Wildlife Conservation Law
Levels and Sources
The Development of Wildlife Laws
International Wildlife Conservation Legislation
The Main Conventions
Sectoral and Single Species Treaties
Regional Wildlife Conservation Legislation
National Wildlife Conservation Legislation
Wildlife Law Enforcement
Conclusion
References
Part II: Applying Forensic Science and Integrative Disciplines to Conservation
Conservation Forensics: The Intersection of Wildlife Crime, Forensics, and Conservation
Introduction
Causes and Scale of Wildlife Crime
Negative Impacts of Wildlife Crime
The Need for Conservation Forensics
Application of Forensic Tools and Techniques
The Crime Scene
Pathology and Toxicology
Microscopy and Morphology
Forensic Entomology
Conservation Genetics and Isotope Analysis
Emerging Technologies
Technologies for Surveillance and Detection
Animal Devices
Radio Frequency Identification Tags
Spatial Technologies
Biologgers
Non-animal Devices
Night Vision and Thermal Optics
Remote Cameras and Break Beams
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
Autonomous Recording Devices
Analytical and Outcome-Oriented Products
Predictive Mapping
Data Analysis and Applications
Conservation Forensics to Prevent Wildlife Crime
Conclusion
References
The Intersection of Forensic Techniques with Ecological Issues
An Introduction to Ecology, Biodiversity, and Forensics
Box 1 When a Hallmark Food Web Needs Ecological Forensics
Methods Used to Study Environmental DNA
Tracking Species of Interest with eDNA
Case Study on eDNA from Sediments: Species Networks to Diagnose Processes
Lagoons
The Future
References
Wildlife Forensic Genetics and Biodiversity Conservation: The Intersection of Science, Species Management, and the Law
Introduction
A Brief History of Wildlife Forensics
The Link Between Wildlife Forensics and Biodiversity
Biodiversity Conservation Research and Wildlife Forensic Genetics: Similarities and Differences
Population Genetics
Phylogenetics and Evolution
Statistical Analysis
Cautionary Points
Standards and Guidelines
Box 1 Examples of Forensic Testing Laboratories That Conduct Wildlife Forensic Genetics Analyses
How Wildlife Forensic Genetics Intersects with Biodiversity Conservation: Case Studies
The Endangered Species Act (ESA)
ESA Case Study: Wildlife Forensic Identification of North American Gray Wolf Populations
CITES: The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
CITES Case Study: Pa Lor
The Lacey Act
Lacey Act Case Study: House Mountain Elk
Migratory Bird Treaty Act (MBTA) and the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act (BGEPA)
MBTA/BGEPA Case Study: Operation Dakota Flyer
US Animal Conservation Laws for International Species of Interest
Case Study: Ivory Crush to Combat Trade of Ivory
Case Study: Operation Northwest Caviar
Summary
References
Carrion Ecology
Introduction
Biological Processes of Decomposition
Arthropods and Carrion
Carrion Use by Vertebrates
Ecosystem Services Provided by Vertebrate Scavengers
Critical Linkages in Food Webs
Distribution of Nutrients Within and Among Ecosystems
The Role of Scavengers in Disease Ecology
Microorganisms
Carrion Ecology in the Aquatic Ecosystem
Gas Exchange
Nutrient Limitations
Other Chemical Factors
Carrion and the Environment
Nutrient Cycling in a Food Web
Ecological Effect of Carrion
Chapter Summary
References
Wildlife Forensic Pathology
Introduction
The Role of Pathology in Wildlife Studies
The Role of a Necropsy
Personnel
Post-mortem Methods
Box 1 Stages of a Post-mortem Examination
Preparation of Equipment
Forensic Pathology in the Field
Timing of the Necropsy
Examination of Samples
Health and Safety
Performance of the Necropsy; Post-mortem Technique
Assessing the Time of Death
Box 2 Assessing the Time of Death: Indicators of Importance
Determining How Death Occurred
Box 3 Questions to Ask When Ascertaining How Death Occurred
Making a Diagnosis
Definition and Description of Lesions
Box 4 Describing Lesions
Morphometrics
Species Differentiation
Age Determination of Animals and Their Derivatives
Ageing of Lesions
Box 5 Criteria Useful When Assessing Lesions
Post-mortem Imaging
Recognition of Post-mortem Change
Box 6 Factors Affecting the Progression of Post-mortem Changes
Case Study 1
Forensic Entomology
Laboratory Investigation
Forensic Odontology
Box 7 Recommended Approach: Presumed Animal Bites
Box 8 Important Features of a Bite Wound
Road Traffic (Vehicular) Accidents/Collisions
Lesions Associated with Firearms, Other Weapons, Traps and Snares
Box 9 Protocol for Investigating Snare Injuries
Box 10 Laboratory Examination of Snares
Box 11 Entry Wounds
Traumatic Injuries
Case Study 2
Other Types of Pathology
Strangulation and Hanging
Blast Injuries
Neonatal Deaths
Asphyxia
Electrocution
Burns and Death in Fires
Drowning
Impaction of the Gastrointestinal Tract
Lesions of Skeletons and Bones
Box 12 Considerations in the Examination of Bones
Mummification
Starvation
Group, Herd or Flock Examinations
Disposal of Carcases
Reports and Reporting
Communities and Culture
Conclusions
Answers to Case Studies
Appendices
Appendix 1: Forensic Examination of Live Animals: Birds
Appendix 2: Submission and Report Forms
Appendix 3: Examination of Eggs and Embryos
Appendix 4: Turtle Egg/Embryo Examination Form
Appendix 5: Field Equipment Lists
Equipment-General Items
Equipment: When Working in the Field
Additional Equipment for Specific Investigations
Appendix 6: Samples
Selection of Samples
Appendix 7: Post-mortem Examination Form
Appendix 8: Specimen Forms-Wildlife Forensic Cases
Appendix 9: Summary of Post-mortem Findings
References
The Role of Conservation Dog Detection and Ecological Monitoring in Supporting Environmental Forensics and Enforcement Initiat...
Introduction
Detection Dog Applications at the Interface of Environmental Forensics, Enforcement, and Conservation Monitoring
Detecting Deliberate Wildlife Poisoning
Intercepting Overharvest and Illegal Take of Marine Organisms
Watercraft Inspection to Prevent the Entry or Spread of Invasive Species into Aquatic Ecosystems
Terrestrial Monitoring and Eradication of Non-native Fauna, Noxious Weeds, and Invasive Insect Pests
Noninvasive Monitoring of Environmental Contaminants Through Indicator Species
Incentives for Increased Use of Ecological Monitoring Applications of Detection Dogs Within a Preventive and Supportive Framew...
Common Misconceptions About Dogs, CDDHTs and Handlers in Conservation Detection
Different Types of Dogs Can Be Suited to Conservation Detection
Multiple Dogs and Handlers May Work Together as a Team
Human and Dog Team Surveys Gather Information in Vastly Different Ways
Interpreting Seemingly Low or Variable Detection Performances, Factoring in Biological Versus Statistical Significance and Con...
Dogs Are Not Always the Answer
Conservation Detection Dogs as Ambassadors
An Opportunity to Pool Knowledge and Share Resources
Training Samples and Multi-target Training
Detection Dog Programs
Development of In-house Dog-Handler Teams
Conclusions
Summary and Recommendations:
Bibliography
Processing the Wildlife Crime Scene and Evidence of Forensic Importance
Introduction
Problems with the Wildlife Crime Scene Investigation Discipline
Perceptions
Lack of Awareness, Training, and Knowledge
Misunderstanding of What Is Important
Responsibility
Working with Others
Safety
Evidence
Evidence Supplies: Substitution and Improvisation
Evidence Particular to Wildlife Cases
Chain of Custody
Scene Processing Procedures and Special Considerations
Initial Notification
Written Documentation
Crime Scene Assessment, Personnel, and Roles
Veterinarians and Medical Personnel
Scene Processing: Photographs, Sketching, and Evidence Documentation
General Scene Considerations
Box 1: Basic Questions to Ask Before Initiating Crime Scene Processing
Photographic Documentation
Video
Evidence Search
Evidence Measurements
Sketching
Scene Rechecks
Evidence Collection
Evidence from an Animal Victim
DNA from Animal Victims or Other Evidence
Releasing and Leaving the Scene
Additional Evidence
Poisoning and Water/Soil Samples
Poisoning and Darts
Botany and Entomology
Conclusion
Appendix 1
Recommended Basic Crime Scene Kit Supply List
Appendix 2
Appendix 3
Appendix 4
Appendix 5
Appendix 6
Appendix 7
Appendix 8
References
Part III: Species-Specific Methodologies and Special Topics in Conservation Forensics and Biodiversity Protection
Gorilla Conservation and One Health
Introduction
Threats to Gorillas
One Health
Assessment of Disease Risks to Gorillas
Promoting Health and Conservation Using a Community-Based Model
Evaluating Monthly Data on Positive Behavior Change Within the Local Communities
Village Health and Conservation Teams
Training Park Staff and Community Volunteers to Monitor Gorilla Health
Building a Gorilla Health and Community Conservation Center for Analysis of Pathogens from Wildlife, People, and Domestic Anim...
Linking with Local Human Health Centers Through Comparative Disease Investigations
Linking with Local Human Health Centers Through Community Based Health Promotion
Conclusion: Impact on Gorilla Conservation
Future Recommendations for Model Sustainability and Scalability
Donors
References
Forensic Science in Marine Mammalogy: Applications and Limitations
Laws Protecting Marine Mammals
Classifying Anthropogenic Effects on Marine Mammals
Challenges of Investigating Marine Mammal Cases
Body Size
Aquatic Environments
Taphonomy
Confounding Effects
Postmortem Investigation of Marine Mammal Carcasses
Watercraft Strike
Underwater Entrapment/Drowning
Entanglement
Ingestion of Gear and Marine Debris
Projectiles
Illegal Mutilation and Trophy Collection
Illegal Sale of Parts
Toxin Exposure
Underwater Sound Exposure
Final Thoughts
References
Contaminants as a Conservation Threat to Marine Mammals
Contaminants of Concern in Marine Mammals
Sources
Legacy and Emerging Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification of Contaminants
Mercury
Incorporation into Marine Food Webs
Legacy and Emerging POPs
Mercury
Tools to Measure Contaminant-Related Health Effects in Marine Mammals
Marine Mammal Sample Collection in Support of Physiological and Molecular Investigations
Measurements of Key Hormones and Vitamins
Immunotoxicity Measurements
Omics
Transcriptomics
Metabolomics
Contaminants, Marine Mammals, and Conservation
Case of the Endangered St Lawrence Estuary Beluga Whales
Case of the Endangered Southern Resident Killer Whales
Comparison of the SLE Beluga and SRKW
Conclusion
References
The Intentional Use of Pesticides as Poison in Kenya: Conservation and Ecohealth Impacts
Introduction
Methodology
Results
Results of Social Surveys
Findings of Agrovet Questionnaire
Findings of the Farmer/User/Witness/Project Officer Questionnaire
Findings from the Questionnaire on Legislation Regarding Furadan
Results from the Bird Poisoning Quantification Study
Results of Bird Poisoning Questionnaires and Interviews
Poacher Responses
Consumer Responses
Results of Thin-Layer Chromatography Analysis
Discussion
Conclusion
Future Recommendations
References
A Primer to the Global Trade of Reptiles: Magnitude, Key Challenges, and Implications for Conservation
Introduction
Magnitude
Reptiles in Traditional Medicine
International Trade for Traditional Medicine
Reptile Skin Trade
International Trade of Reptile Skins
Reptiles for Human Consumption
International Trade for Human Consumption
Live Reptile Trade
International Trade of Live Reptiles
Issues
Availability of Data and the Challenges in Analysis
Fraudulent Source Declarations
Lack of International Protection for Nationally Protected Species
Conservation Implications
Introduction of Diseases
Invasive Species Risk
Conclusion
References
RhODIS (The Rhinoceros DNA Index System): The Application of Simple Forensic and Genetic Tools Help Conserve African Rhinoceros
Introduction: The Beginning
Rhinoceros: The Victim
Rhinoceros Horn: The Product
Poaching: The Problem
RhODIS: One Part of the Solution
RhODIS: Sampling System
RhODIS: Test Methodology
DNA Extraction
DNA Profiling and Data Analysis
RhODIS: Forensics, the Primary Application
RhODIS: Population Management, a Useful Bonus
RhODIS Provides Evidence of Subspecies Admixture and Genetic Rescue of a Population of Black Rhinoceros in South Africa
Conclusion
References