Value-added Products from Algae: Phycochemical Production and Applications

✍ Scribed by Abdelfatah Abomohra (editor), Stephan Ende (editor)

• Publisher: Springer
• Year: 2023
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 613
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

This book provides a comprehensive overview of value-added products from algae, presenting the fundamentals of algal cultivation, metabolism, harvest, and cellular pathways of phycochemicals biosynthesis. It offers sufficient details for both experts and non-experts to grasp the recent progress in this field. The book also discusses new phycochemicals and advancements in technology development, from separation to scale-up commercialization.

Divided into 18 chapters, the book begins with an introduction to the value of algae as a renewable resource, followed by an authoritative overview of topics such as algae cultivation systems, harvesting techniques, phycochemical analysis, artificial intelligence in phytochemical recognition, and bioprocess engineering. Additional chapters cover various aspects of algal biotechnology, including biorefinery technology, biofuel-integrated routes, and the use of wastewater for algal growth. The book also explores high throughput screening methods for microalgae-based phycochemicals and examines the catalytic processes involved in algal bioprocessing. Cutting-edge topics such as omics approaches for algal applications, algal-based biopolymers, diatom nanostructured biosilica, and the potential of seaweeds in methane emission mitigation, are also explored. In this book, readers will discover the recent technological applications of algae in aquaculture and will find a case study on the functional food potential of Spirulina. Recognizing the importance of legislation and biosecurity in the field, the last chapter of the book addresses the regulatory frameworks and biosecurity measures necessary for the safe and sustainable development of algal biotechnology.

Given its breadth, the book is a valuable resource for scholars, researchers and professionals interested in algal biotechnology, sustainability, biomass conversion, and new algal products from any perspective.

✦ Table of Contents

Foreword
Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Opening the Algal Gateway
1 Introduction
2 Algae Cultivation and Harvest
3 Phycochemicals
4 Biorefinery
5 Enhanced Production
6 Industrial Applications
7 Legislation and Biosecurity
References
Algae Cultivation Systems
1 Introduction
2 Seaweed Cultivation Techniques
2.1 Lab-Scale (Macroalgal Photobioreactors)
2.2 Pilot-Scale Production
2.3 Large-Scale Production
2.3.1 Floating Design
2.3.2 Submerged Systems
Long-Line Technique
Bottom Culture Technique
Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA)
Floating Rafts for Vertical Rope Culture
Polyethylene Nets and Ropes Hanging on a Floating Rope
Ring System
3 Microalgae Cultivation Modes and Techniques
3.1 Cultivation Modes and Growth Conditions
3.1.1 Photoautotrophic Cultivation
3.1.2 Heterotrophic Cultivation
3.1.3 Mixotrophic Cultivation
3.1.4 Photoheterotrophic Cultivation
3.2 Microalgae Cultivation Systems
3.2.1 Open Systems
Unstirred Ponds
Circular Ponds
Racetrack/Way Pond
3.2.2 Closed Systems
Vertical Photobioreactors
Horizontal Photobioreactors (HPBRs)
Stirred Photobioreactors (SPBRs)
Flat Panel Photobioreactors (FpPBRs)
3.2.3 Hybrid Cultivation System
3.2.4 Dark System
3.2.5 Offshore Cultivation
4 Advantages and Drawbacks of Different Microalgae Cultivation Systems
5 Challenges and Future Perspectives
6 Conclusions
References
Algae Harvesting
1 Introduction
2 Microalgae Harvesting
2.1 Methods of Microalgae Harvesting
2.1.1 Flocculation
Chemical Coagulation/Flocculation
Auto-Flocculation
Bio-Flocculation
2.1.2 Gravity Sedimentation
2.1.3 Flotation
2.1.4 Electrical Methods
2.1.5 Centrifugation
2.1.6 Filtration
2.2 Environmental and Economic Impacts
2.3 Constraints to Microalgae Harvesting
3 Seaweed Harvesting
3.1 Methods of Seaweed Harvesting
3.1.1 Manual Harvesting
3.1.2 Mechanical Harvesting
3.2 Environmental and Economic Impacts of Seaweed Harvesting
3.3 Constraints to Seaweed Harvesting
4 Conclusions
References
Phycochemicals
1 Introduction
2 The Strength of Microalgal Metabolism
3 Types of Phycochemicals
3.1 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFAs)
3.2 Pigments
3.2.1 Chlorophylls
3.2.2 Astaxanthin
3.3 Organic Acids
3.4 Vitamins
3.4.1 Vitamin E
3.4.2 Vitamin C
3.5 Hormones
3.5.1 Auxins
3.5.2 Cytokinin
3.6 Polyphenols
3.7 Miscellaneous Phycochemicals
3.7.1 Polyhydroxyalkanoates
3.7.2 Sporopollenin
3.7.3 Botryococcene
4 Microalgae Nanobionics for Enhanced Phycochemical Production
4.1 Algae-Nanotechnology Integration
5 Conclusions
References
Artificial Intelligence in Phycochemicals Recognition
1 Introduction
2 Artificial Intelligence Algorithms
2.1 Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
2.2 Clustering
2.2.1 Hierarchical Clustering Analysis (HCA)
2.2.2 K-Means Clustering
2.2.3 Self-Organizing Maps (SOM)
2.3 Supervised Learning
2.3.1 k-Nearest Neighbors
2.3.2 Random Forest
2.3.3 Support Vector Machine
2.3.4 Multi-Layer Perceptron
2.3.5 Convolutional Neural Networks
3 Seventy Years to Advance the Development of Microalgae Chemodiversity
4 Algae-Integrating Artificial Intelligence
4.1 ML/DL for Discovery of Phytochemicals and their Respective Chemical Structure
4.2 ML/DL for Discovery of Metabolic Pathways
4.3 ML/DL for Monitoring of Bioprocesses
5 Conclusions
References
Overview of Bioprocess Engineering
1 Introduction
2 Basics of Algal Production Bioprocesses
3 Commercial-Scale Production of Phytochemicals
3.1 Microalgae Cultivation Systems
3.2 Downstream Processing of Microalgal Biomass
3.2.1 Harvesting and Drying Methods
3.2.2 Microalgae Biomass Pretreatment
3.2.3 Products and/or Whole Biomass Conversion
3.2.4 Value-Added Products
4 Economic Viability of Biomass Conversion
5 Limitations, Research Requirements, and Future Scope
6 Conclusions
References
Overview of Biorefinery Technology
1 Introduction
2 Concept of Biorefineries
3 Algal Biorefinery
4 Opportunities and Challenges of Algal Biorefinery
4.1 Opportunities of Algal Biorefinery
4.2 Challenges of Algal Biorefinery
5 Possible Routes for Integrated Phycochemical Production
5.1 Biohydrogen
5.2 Biodiesel
5.3 Fatty Acid-Derived Chemicals
5.4 Bioethanol
5.5 Butanol
5.6 Enzymes, Peptides, and Amino Acids
5.7 Biopolymers
5.8 Methanol
5.9 Sucrose/Hexose
5.10 Levulinic Acid and Gamma-Valerolactone
5.11 Cyclopentanone and Pentanediol
5.12 Furfuryl Alcohol, 2-Methylfuran, and Tetrahydrofurfuryl Alcohol
5.13 Tetrahydrofuran
5.14 Furan
5.15 L-Arabinose
5.16 Pentanediols (PDO) Production Rote
6 Different Applications of Phycochemicals
6.1 Biochemicals
6.2 Bioenergy
7 Recent Trends, Challenges, and Prospects of Algal Biorefinery
7.1 Recent Trends in Biochemicals
7.2 Recent Trends in Bioenergy
7.3 Challenges in Algal Biorefinery
7.4 Prospects of Algal Biorefinery
8 Conclusions
References
Biofuel-Integrated Routes
1 Introduction
2 Integrating Production of Various Algae Biofuels in Biorefinery Systems
2.1 Integrating Production of Algal Biofuels with High-Value Low-Volume Products
2.2 Integrating Production of Algal Biofuels with Other High-Volume Low-Value Products
2.3 Integrating Production of Algal Biofuels with Both High-Value Low-Volume and High-Volume Low-Value Products
2.4 Integrating Generation of Bioelectricity with Wastewater Treatment
3 Biofuels from Phycoremediation
4 Challenges of Algal Integrated Biofuel Routes
5 Conclusions
References
The Use of Wastewater for Algal Growth
1 Introduction
2 Microalgae-Based Wastewater Treatment
2.1 Benefits of Microalgae in Wastewater Treatment
2.2 Conventional Versus Microalgae-Mediated Wastewater Treatment (MMWT)
2.3 Enhanced Water Quality by Algal Treatment
2.4 Nutrient Recovery
2.5 Phosphorus and Nitrogen Recovery
2.6 Heavy Metal Removal
2.7 Factors Influencing Wastewater Treatment
2.7.1 Wastewater Characteristics
Turbidity
Nitrogen and Phosphorus
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)/Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
3 Current Microalgae-Based Wastewater Treatment Technologies
3.1 Suspended Microalgae-Mediated Wastewater Treatment
3.2 Immobilized Microalgae-Based Wastewater Treatment
4 Sustainability of Microalgae-Based Wastewater Treatment
5 Challenges and Future Perspectives
6 Conclusions
References
High-Throughput Screening to Accelerate Microalgae-Based Phycochemical Production
1 Introduction
1.1 Addressing Planetary Boundaries and Sustainable Development Goals: A Path to Net-Zero Emissions
1.1.1 Decarbonising the Economy: Diversifying Solutions across Sectors
1.1.2 IPCC Report 2023: The Power of Adaptation Strategies
1.1.3 From Planning to Implementation: Overcoming Fragmented Adaptation Efforts
2 Microalgae: A Solar Biotechnology Platform Supporting the Path to Net Zero
2.1 Algae: From Traditional Use to Modern Applications
2.2 Integrated Solar Biomanufacturing Using Microalgae
2.2.1 Key Innovations for Enhanced Biomass Production in Agriculture
2.2.2 Key Innovations for Enhanced Biomass Production in Fermentation
2.3 Accelerate Discovery with High-Throughput Screening
2.3.1 From Compound Screening to Industrial Control: The Future of High-Throughput Screening
2.4 Bottlenecks to Deploy Large-Scale Microalgae Production
2.4.1 Developing Scalable Commercial Microalgae Production Systems
2.4.2 Enhancing Downstream Processing with Single-Cell Analysis
3 Potential of HTS in Microalgae Research
3.1 Throughput Via Miniaturisation
3.1.1 Microwell Plates
3.1.2 Microfluidics
3.2 Throughput Via Automation
3.3 The Role of Robotics in HTS Systems
4 Experimental Design and Data Management for HTS Systems
4.1 Design of Experiments (DoE)
4.1.1 Experimental Compression with Incomplete Factorial Designs
4.2 Data Fitting Techniques
4.2.1 Growth Modelling for Microwell Cultures
4.2.2 Partial Least Squares (PLS) and Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
4.3 Predictive Modelling from HTS Data Based on Machine-Learning Techniques
4.3.1 Alternative Machine-Learning Techniques
4.3.2 Coupled Methods with Machine Learning
5 HTS Optimisation Applications
5.1 Optimising Availability and Interactions of Key Nutrients in Miniaturised HTS
5.1.1 Streamlining Nutrient Optimisation in HTS: A Combined Complete and Incomplete Factorial Approach
5.1.2 Navigating the Complexity of Saltwater Media
6 Conclusions: Resource Databasing for Circulation of Resources
References
Catalyst in Action
1 Introduction
2 Catalysts Involved in Thermochemical Conversion
2.1 Hydrothermal Liquefaction
2.1.1 Types of Catalyst in HTL
2.2 Catalysts Involved in Pyrolysis
2.2.1 Zeolites
2.2.2 Metal-Loaded Zeolites
2.2.3 Metal-Organic Frameworks
2.2.4 Few Promising Pyrolysis Catalysts
3 Catalyst in Biodiesel Production
3.1 Homogeneous Catalysts
3.2 Heterogeneous Catalysts
3.3 Heterogeneous Nanocatalysts
3.4 Biocatalysts
4 Deep Eutectic Solvents
5 Algae-Based Catalysts (Phycocatalysts)
6 Energy Balance
7 Conclusions
References
Omics Approaches for Algal Applications
1 Introduction
2 Genomics
2.1 Wastewater Treatment
2.2 Biofuels
2.3 Medical and Therapeutic Applications
2.4 Metal Toxicity and Bioremediation
2.5 Agriculture, Cosmetics, and Environmental Applications
3 Lipidomics
3.1 Improving Microalgal Lipids
4 Transcriptomics
4.1 Wastewater Treatment
4.2 Biofuel Production
4.3 Medical and Therapeutic Applications
4.4 Metal Toxicity and Bioremediation
5 Proteomics
5.1 Food Industries
5.2 Medicine and Therapeutic Applications
5.3 Toxicological Studies
5.4 Cosmetic Applications
6 Metabolomics
6.1 Wastewater Treatment
6.2 Biofuel Production
6.3 Agriculture and Environmental Applications
6.4 Medical, Therapeutics, and Health Applications
6.5 Food and Cosmetic Applications
7 Limitations and Bottlenecks of Algal Omics
8 Conclusions
References
Algal-based Biopolymers
1 Introduction
2 Polyhydroxy Biopolymers
2.1 Physiochemical Properties
2.2 Production
2.2.1 Metabolic Route
2.2.2 Optimization Strategies
2.2.3 Recycling
2.2.4 Market and Applications
3 Polyols and Polyurethanes
3.1 Physiochemical Properties
3.2 Production
3.2.1 Conventional Chemical Production
3.2.2 Bio-Based Feedstock and Production
3.2.3 Lipid-Based Polyols
3.2.4 Amine-Based Polyols
3.2.5 Cellulose-Based Polyols
3.3 Recycling
3.3.1 Physical Recycling
3.3.2 Chemical Recycling
3.3.3 Biological Recycling
3.4 Market and Applications
4 Polyacrylonitrile (PAN)
4.1 Physiochemical Properties
4.2 Production
4.2.1 Conventional PAN and Acrylonitrile Production
4.2.2 Bio-Sourced Acrylonitrile
4.2.3 Direct Route: Glycerol Produced by Select Algal Species
4.2.4 Indirect Route: Glycerol as by-product of Biofuel Production Processes
4.3 Recycling
4.4 Market and Applications
4.4.1 Direct Applications
4.4.2 Indirect Applications: Precursor to Carbon fibers
5 Alginate
5.1 Physiochemical Properties
5.2 Production
5.2.1 Biosynthesis
5.2.2 Extraction
5.2.3 Downstream Processing
5.3 Recycling
5.4 Market and Applications
5.4.1 Food Applications
5.4.2 Cosmetic Applications
5.4.3 Biomedical Applications
5.4.4 Textile Applications
5.4.5 Construction Applications
6 Carrageenan
6.1 Physiochemical Properties
6.2 Production
6.2.1 Marine Sources
6.2.2 Extraction
6.3 Recycling
6.4 Market and Applications
6.4.1 Food
6.4.2 Pharmaceuticals
6.4.3 Bioplastics
7 Laminarin
7.1 Physiochemical Properties
7.2 Production
7.3 Recycling
7.4 Market and Applications
8 Challenges and Future Directions
9 Conclusions
References
Diatom Nanostructured Biosilica
1 Introduction
2 Multiplicity of Diatom Frustule Morphology and Ultrastructure
3 Diatomite: A Cheaper Source of Diatoms Silica
3.1 Building Materials
3.1.1 Building Bricks
3.1.2 Cement
3.1.3 Paints and Surface Coatings
3.2 Rubber Industry
3.3 Asphalt
3.4 Agriculture Sector
3.5 Insecticides
3.6 Animal Feed
3.7 Supplementary Additives for Human Diet
3.8 Pharmaceuticals, Cosmetics, and Dental Materials
4 Challenges in Diatom Large-Scale Cultivation
5 Biotechnological and Biomedical Applications
5.1 Enzyme Immobilization
5.1.1 In Vitro Immobilization
5.1.2 In Vivo Approaches for Enzyme Immobilization
5.2 Drug Delivery
5.3 Bone Regeneration
5.4 Medical Nanodevices
6 Conclusions
References
Potential of Seaweeds to Mitigate Methane Emissions
1 Introduction
2 Overview of Rumen Fermentation and Methane Production
2.1 Significance of Methane Emissions as GHG
2.2 Mitigation Potential of Various Strategies
3 Asparagopsis Spp.
3.1 Taxonomy and Habitats
3.2 Life Cycle
3.3 Nutritional Value and Potential Applications
4 Bromoform
4.1 Molecular Structure and Physio-Chemical Properties
4.2 Toxicological Aspects and Safety Considerations
5 Potential of Seaweeds as a Methane Inhibitor in Ruminant Animals
5.1 Halogenated Bioactive Compounds in Seaweeds
5.2 Bromoform in Seaweeds
5.3 Actions in the Rumen
6 Discovery of Anti-Methanogenic Factors in Seaweeds
6.1 In Vitro Studies
6.2 In Vivo Trials
7 Impacts of Algal Feed Additives
7.1 Energy Use, Animal Health, and Performance
7.2 Considerations for Dosage and Animal Health
8 Industrial and Commercial Progress
9 Challenges and Opportunities
9.1 Cultivation
9.2 Meeting the Demands of the Livestock Industry
9.3 Complicated Lifecycle
9.4 Regulatory Considerations
9.5 Iodine Content
10 Conclusions
References
Algae for Aquaculture: Recent Technological Applications
1 Introduction
2 Algae as a Natural Food Source in Aquatic Ecosystems
3 Forms of Algae for Sustainable Aquaculture
3.1 Live Feed
3.1.1 Zooplankton
3.1.2 Shrimp
3.1.3 Sea Cucumbers
3.1.4 Sea Urchins and Seahorses
3.1.5 Shellfish
3.1.6 Fish
3.2 Dried Microalgae
3.3 Combined Algae Diets
3.4 Algae as a Substitute for Traditional Diet Ingredients in Aquafeed
3.5 Algae Assisted Aquaculture
3.6 Co-Cultivation of Algae and Integration with Aquatic Animals
3.7 Nanoparticle Forms
4 Challenges and Future Prospects of Using Algae in Aquaculture
5 Conclusions
References
Algae as a Functional Food: A Case Study on Spirulina
1 Introduction: Spirulina-New or Traditional Food?
2 The 10 Interesting Facts on Spirulina
3 Nutritional Value
4 Effect of Cultivation Conditions on Spirulina Nutritional Value
5 Effect of Drying on Spirulina Nutritional Value
6 Health Benefits of Spirulina
7 Supply and Demand of Spirulina
8 Spirulina Laws and Regulations
9 Spirulina Products in the Market
9.1 Powder
9.2 Fresh Frozen
9.3 Spirulina in Snacks
9.4 Spirulina in Drinks
9.5 Spirulina in Pasta
9.6 Spirulina in Dairy Products
10 Impact of Spirulina as a Functional Ingredient
11 Conclusions
References
Legislation and Biosecurity
1 Introduction
2 GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe) Status
2.1 Biosecurity of Edible Algae
3 Legislation in Food Industry
3.1 Nagoya Protocol
3.2 Genetically Modified Microorganisms
3.2.1 Legislations of GM Algae
3.2.2 The Bottleneck in Large-Scale Production of GM Algae
3.3 Biosafety in Food Industry
4 Conclusions
References