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URDU: AN ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR
Copyright
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
PREFACE
INTRODUCTION
SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
1 NOUNS
GENDER AND MARKING
101 Gender
102 Marking
103
Marked nouns
104
Unmarked nouns
105
Natural gender
106
Some other clues to gender of nouns
NOUN PLURALS
107
Forms (nominative case)
108
Non-count (mass) nouns
INFLECTION OF NOUNS
109
Nominative case
110
Oblique case
111
Oblique nouns resulting from dropping of ko
112
Expressing totality
112
Vocative case of nouns
REPETITION OF NOUNS
114
Simple repetition
115
Repetition with an echo word
NOUNS AS UNITS OF MEASURE (116)
OTHER PARTS OF SPEECH USED AS NOUNS (117)
2 PRONOUNS
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
201
ye, ‘this’ and vo, ‘that’
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
202
Forms
203
Honorific levels in second person pronouns
204
ham used as a first person singular pronoun
205
Omission of personal pronouns
206
log as a plural specifier
207
Nominative pronouns
208
Oblique (inflected) pronouns
209
Exception to §208
210
The suffix e~(h)em replacing ko
211
Pronouns before the postposition ne
212
Possessive forms of personal pronouns
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
213
The reflexive possessive adjective apna
214
xud and ap, ‘self’
215
apne ap, xud, xud baxud
216
apas mem ‘among’
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
217
kya , ‘what?’
218
kya marking questions and exclamations
219
kaun, ‘who?’
220
Oblique forms of kya and kaun
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
221
koi , ‘some(one)’, ‘any(one)’
222
kuch, ‘some(thing)’, ‘any(thing)’
RELATIVE PRONOUN
223
jo
REPEATED PRONOUNS
224
kya kya
225
kaun kaun
226
koi koi , koi na koi
227
kuch kuch, kuch na kuch
3 ADJECTIVES
MARKING
301
Marked adjectives
302
Unmarked adjectives
AGREEMENT
303
Agreement in gender and number
304
Agreement in case
305
Agreement with noun sequences of different gender
306
Attributive and predicative adjectives
PRONOUNS USED AS ADJECTIVES
307
Interrogative pronouns
308
Indefinite pronouns
SYMMETRICAL y-v-k-j WORD SETS
309
The categories: NEAR—FAR—INTERROGATIVE—RELATIVE
ADJECTIVE PHRASES FORMED WITH sa AND vala
310
The adjectival particle sa (~ se ~ si )
311
The suffix vala
REPEATED ADJECTIVES
312
Simple repetition
313
Repetition with an echo word
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
314
Comparison of adjectives with se
315
Comparison of adjectives with tar, tarin
316
zyada, ‘more’, ‘most’ and kafi, ‘quite’, ‘too’
317
Superlatives with adjective+se+adjective
ADJECTIVES WITH OTHER GRAMMATICAL FUNCTIONS
318
Adjectives used as adverbs
319
Adjectives used as nouns
ADJECTIVES DISCUSSED IN OTHER CHAPTERS
320
Participles used as adjectives
321
Possessive adjectives
322
The reflexive possessive adjective apna
323
Numbers
4 ADVERBS
SYMMETRICAL y-v-k-j ADVERB SETS
401
The categories: NEAR—FAR—INTERROGATIVE—RELATIVE
ADVERBS OF TIME
402
ab—tab—kab—jab
403
is vaqt—us vaqt—kis vaqt
404
Calendar and clock time
ADVERBS OF PLACE
405
yaham—vaham—kaham
406
idhar—udhar—kidhar
407
is jagah—us jagah—kis jagah
408
is taraf—us taraf—kis taraf
409
Obliques as adverbs of place
410
Adverbial phrase or compound postposition?
ADVERBS OF MANNER
411
yum—kyom—jum
412 aisa—vaisa—kaisa—jaisa
413
is tarah—us tarah—kis tarah—jis tarah
414
Adverbial phrases of manner with the postposition se
415
Participles used adverbially
ADVERBS OF DEGREE (416 )
MODAL ADVERBS
417
The negative words nahim, na, mat
418
bhi, ‘also’, ‘too’
419
‘both…and’ , ‘neither…nor’
420
phir, ‘again’ , ‘then’
ARABIC ADVERB SENDING IN-an (421)
REPEATED ADVERBS
422
Simple repetition
423
Idiomatic repetition
INTERROGATIVES AND INDEFINITES USED WITH IRONY
424
Interrogative adverbs used with irony
425
Indefinite adverbs used with irony
426
Interrogative pronouns used with irony
ORDER OF MULTIPLE ADVERBS (427)
5 POSTPOSITIONS
GRAMMATICAL POSTPOSITIONS
501
ka ~ ka ~ ka expressing possession
502
ka marking objects
503
Inflected ka in compound postpositions
504
ko and its alternate forms
505
ko marking objects
506
ko marking subjects
507
ko showing movement in a direction or to a destination
508
ko after days and dates
509
ko following infinitives
510
ne marking subjects
SPATIAL-TEMPORAL POSTPOSITIONS
511 se with ablative function
512 se marking the instrument
513
se in comparison of adjectives
514
se in adverbial phrases
515
se marking objects
516
se forming postpositional sequences
517
tak showing extent or limit
518
tak as an emphatic particle
519
mem with locative function
520
Infinitives followed by mem
521
par with locative function
522
par showing movement to a destination
523
par following oblique infinitives
524
Oblique infinitive+par bhi
525
par marking objects
526
Collocations of verbs with postpositions
COMPOUND POSTPOSITIONS
527
ka+oblique noun+postposition
528
ka+oblique noun
529
ka+oblique adjective
530
ka+adverb
531
(ka)+Persian preposition+oblique noun
532
Noun+izafat
POSTPOSITIONAL SEQUENCES
533
Spatial-temporal postpositions+se
EXPRESSING POSSESSION (‘TO HAVE’)
534
Inalienable possession: ka (~ke ~ki )
535
Alienable possession: ke pas
536
Intangible possession: ko
6 VERBS
FORMS OF THE VERB
601
Root
602
Infinitive
603
Imperfective participle
604
Perfective participle
THE VERB hona , ‘TO BE’
605
The conjugation of hona
606
hona as an auxiliary verb
DENOMINATIVE VERBS (607)
VERB FORMS BASED ON THE VERB ROOT
608
Subjunctive
609
Conditional sentences
610
Request forms
611
Future tense
612
Conjunctive participles
613
Repeated roots in conjunctive participles
614
Continuous tenses
615
Continuous present
616
Continuous past
617
Other continuous tenses
618
Root+sakna (ability, possibility)
619
Root+pana (possibility)
620
Root+cukna (completion)
621
Compound verbs
VERB FORMS BASED ON THE IMPERFECTIVE PARTICIPLE
622
Imperfective participles alone
623
Habitual present
624
Habitual past
625
Other habitual tenses
626
Imperfective participle+rahna (iterative)
627
Imperfective participle+jana (progression)
628
Imperfective participle used as an adjective
VERB FORMS BASED ON THE PERFECTIVE PARTICIPLE
629
Agreement in perfective tenses
630
Simple past
631
Immediate past
632
Remote past
633
Other punctual tenses
634
Derived passive
635
Incapacity
636
Perfective participle+karna (habit or practice)
637
Perfective participle+rahna (continuation)
638
Perfective participle used as an adjective
INFINITIVES
639
Infinitives as verbal nouns
640
Infinitives as request forms
CONSTRUCTIONS WITH NOMINATIVE CASE INFINITIVES
641
Impersonal constructions
642
Infinitive+hai (necessity)
643
Infinitive+cahie (advisability)
644
Infinitive+parna (obligation, lack of choice)
CONSTRUCTIONS WITH OBLIQUE CASE INFINITIVES
645
Oblique infinitive+vala
646
Oblique infinitive+ko
647
Oblique infinitive+lagna (commenced event)
648
Oblique infinitive+dena (‘let’)
649
Oblique infinitive+verb of motion (purpose)
650
Oblique infinitive+ka (negative assertion)
7 COMPOUND VERBS
COMPOUND VERBS AND SIMPLE VERBS
701
The structure of compound verb phrases
702
The difference between compound and simple verbs
INTRANSITIVE VECTOR VERBS
703
The vector verb jana
704
The vector verb parna
705
The vector verb nikalna
706
The vector verb uthna
707
The vector verb baithna
TRANSITIVE VECTOR VERBS
708
The vector verb dena
709
The vector verb lena
710
The vector verb dalna
711
The vector verb rakhna
MIXED TRANSITIVITY IN COMPOUND VERBS
712
Transitive main verbs with intransitive vectors
713
Intransitive main verbs with transitive vectors
RESTRICTIONS ON OCCURRENCE OF COMPOUND VERBS
714
Constructions based on the verb root or infinitive
715
Participial constructions
716
Passive constructions
717
Negative sentences
PERFECTIVE PARTICIPLES AS MAIN VERBS
718
Nominative perfective participles as main verbs
719
Oblique perfective participles as main verbs
DENOMINATIVE VERBS IN COMPOUND VERB SEQUENCES (720)
8 INTRANSITIVE, TRANSITIVE AND CAUSATIVE VERBS
INTRANSITIVE AND TRANSITIVE VERBS
801
The difference between transitive and intransitive verbs
802
Agreement of verbs
803
The increment -a
804
Transitives derived with the increment -a
805
Double transitives derived with the increment -a
806
Transitivity with compound verbs
807
Transitivity with denominative verbs
808
Verbs which function both intransitively and transitively
809
Exceptions: transitives without ne, intransitives with ne
CAUSATIVE VERBS
810
Direct causatives derived with the increment -a
811
Indirect causatives formed with the increment -va
812
Causative denominative verbs
813
Causative verbs in requests
9 PARTICIPLES AS QUALIFIERS
IMPERFECTIVE PARTICIPLES
901
Adjectival use of imperfective participles
902
Adverbial use of imperfective participles
903
Imperfective participle+vaqt, ‘while (VERB)-ing’
904
Imperfective participle+ht, ‘as soon as (VERB)’
905
Repeated imperfective participles
906
Imperfective participles used as nouns
PERFECTIVE PARTICIPLES
907
Adjectival use of perfective participles
908
Adverbial use of perfective participles
909
Adverbial perfective participles in expressions of time
910
Repeated perfective participles
911
Perfective participles used as nouns
912
Perfective participles in compound verbs
CONJUNCTIVE PARTICIPLES
913
Conjunctive participles used adverbially
914
Repeated roots in conjunctive participles
10 WORD ORDER AND AGREEMENT IN SENTENCES
WORD ORDER
1001
Word order in sentences
1002
Objects
1003
Noun phrases
1004
Adverbs
1005
Negative sentences
1006
Interrogative sentences
AGREEMENT
1007
Subject-verb agreement
1008
Verb phrases
1009
Agreement with mixed subjects
1010
Agreement with transitive verbs
1011
Agreement with impersonal verbs
1012
Mixed transitivity
1013
Adjective-noun agreement
11 RELATIVE-CORRELATIVE SENTENCES
THE STRUCTURE OF RELATIVE SENTENCES
1101
Relative words and their counterparts
1102
Deep Structure of relative-correlative sentences
1103
Order of clauses in relative-correlative sentences
1104
Stipulative relative clauses
1105
Correlatives specified by hi
THE RELATIVE PRONOUN jo
1106
Nominative form of jo
1107
Oblique and plural forms of jo
RELATIVE ADJECTIVES
1108
jaisa
1109
jitna
RELATIVE ADVERBS OF PLACE
1110
jaham, jis jagah
1111
jidhar, jis taraf
RELATIVE ADVERBS OF TIME
1112
jab
1113
jab se, jab tak
1114
jab tak+negative, ‘until’, ‘unless’
1115
jab ke, ‘while’
1116
jis vaqt
RELATIVE ADVERBS OF MANNER
1117
jaise
1118
jaise hi
1119
jis tarah
1120
jum
INDEFINITE COMPOUNDS AND REPEATED RELATIVES
1121
Relative words followed by indefinite words, ‘-ever’
1122
Relative words followed by bh , ‘-ever’
1123
Repeated relative words
12 PARTICLES, INTERJECTIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS
PARTICLES
1201
The contrastive emphatic particle to
1202
to introducing result clauses in conditional sentences
1203
nahim to
1204
to introducing correlative clauses
1205
The exclusive emphatic particle hi
1206
Sequences of nouns or pronouns+postpositions+hi
1207
hi occurring as a suffix
1208
kahim expressing improbability or apprehension
1209
Oblique imperfect participle+hi, ‘as soon as’
1210
bhi as inclusive emphatic particle, ‘even’
1211
Emphatic and concessive phrases ending in bhi
1212
hi nahim…bhi in parallel clauses
1213
Oblique infinitive+par bhi, ‘despite’
1214
Indefinite pronouns+bhi, ‘at all’
1215
Relative words followed by bhi, ‘-ever’
1216
The adjectival particle sa (~se ~si)
INTERJECTIONS
1217
Vocative interjections
1218
Free interjections
LEADERS AND TAGS
1219
The leaders kyom and kyom na
1220
accha introducing sentences
1221
The concessive tag sahi
1222
The rhetorical tag na
CONJUNCTIONS
1223
Coordinating conjunctions
1224
Correlative conjunctions
1225
Causal conjunctions
1226
Concessive conjunctions
1227
Subordinating conjunctions
1228
ke introducing subordinate clauses
1229
ke introducing coordinate clauses
1230
ke introducing quotations and reported facts
13 NUMBERS AND TIME
NUMBERS
1301
Cardinal numbers
1302
Ordinal numbers
1303
Fractions
1304
‘Once’, ‘twice’, etc.
1305
Multiplicatives (‘twofold’, ‘double’, etc.)
1306
Repeated numbers
1307
Numbers with the oblique plural
CALENDAR AND CLOCK TIME
1308
Months
1309
Days
1310
Writing the date
1311
Telling the time
MONEY
1312
Contemporary currency
1313
Old currency
14 PERSIAN ELEMENTS IN URDU
THE ENCLITIC izafat (1401)
WORD-FORMING AFFIXES
1402
Nominal suffixes
1403
Prefixes
1404
Prepositions
1405
Plural suffixes
VERB FORMS
1406
Present and past verb stems
COMPOUNDS (1407)
MISCELLANEOUS
1408
Comparison of adjectives with tar, tarin
1409
Persian numbers
15 ARABIC ELEMENTS IN URDU
TRILITERAL ROOT STRUCTURE OF ARABIC WORDS
1501
Arabic derived verb forms
1502
Arabic verbal nouns and participles
NOUN DUALS AND PLURALS
1503
Dual form of Arabic nouns
1504
Plural forms of Arabic nouns
ARABIC PREPOSITIONS AND PARTICLES
1505
Prepositions
1506
Negative particles
MISCELLANEOUS
1507
The definite article
1508
Nouns of place
1509
Nouns of instrument
1510
Elative
1511
Suffixes
16 CEREMONIOUS AND PIOUS SPEECH
GREETINGS AND INTRODUCTIONS
1601
Greetings
1602
Introductions and polite exchanges
FORMAL AND CEREMONIOUS SPEECH
1603
Formal polite requests
1604
Thanking someone
1605
Congratulations
PIOUS PHRASES AND EXCLAMATIONS
1606
Mentioning holy prophets
1607
Phrases for planning or beginning something
1608
Phrases invoking protection and short prayers
1609
Phrases of repentance and requests for forgiveness
1610
Phrases for sad occasions
1611
Phrases for happy occasions
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INDEX