Understanding and Applying Machine Vision, Second Edition, Revised and Expanded

✍ Scribed by Nello Zeuch

• Publisher: CRC Press
• Year: 2000
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 407
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

A discussion of applications of machine vision technology in the semiconductor, electronic, automotive, wood, food, pharmaceutical, printing, and container industries. It describes systems that enable projects to move forward swiftly and efficiently, and focuses on the nuances of the engineering and system integration of machine vision technology.

✦ Table of Contents

Understanding and Applying Machine Vision
Preface
Contents
1— Machine Vision: A Data Acquisition System
References
2— Machine Vision: Historical Perspective
3— Description of the Machine Vision Industry
3.1— Clarification of Which Applications Are and Which Are Not Included as Machine Vision
3.2— Machine Vision Includes a Broad Range of Technical Approaches
3.3— What Technical Approaches Are Included as Machine Vision
3.4— Machine Vision Industry Business Strategies
3.5— Machine Vision Industry-Related Definitions
3.6— Summary
4— The ''What" and "Why" of Machine Vision
4.1— Human Vision versus Machine Vision
4.2— Machine Vision Definition
4.3— Machine Vision Applications
4.4— Overview of Generic Machine Vision Benefits and Justification
References
5— Machine Vision: Introductory Concepts
5.1— Who Is Using Machine Vision
5.2— Deploying Machine Vision
6— Image Acquisition
6.1— Introductory Concepts
6.1.1— Application Features
6.2— Light and Lighting
6.2.1— Contrast and Resolution
6.2.2— Lighting
6.2.3— Light
6.2.3.1— Wavelength
6.2.3.2— Polarization
6.2.3.3— Geometry of Propagation
6.2.4— Practical Sources
6.2.4.1— Incandescent Light Bulb
6.2.4.2— Quartz Halogen Bulbs
6.2.4.3— Discharge Tube
6.2.4.4— Fluorescent Tube
6.2.4.5— Strobe Tube
6.2.4.6— Arc Lamp
6.2.4.7— Light-Emitting Diode
6.2.4.8— Laser
6.2.5— Illumination Optics
6.2.5.1— Fiber-Optic Illuminators
6.2.5.2— Condenser Lens
6.2.5.3— Diffusers
6.2.5.4— Collimators
6.2.6— Interaction of Objects with Light
6.2.6.1— Reflection
6.2.6.2— Scattering
6.2.6.3— Absorption
6.2.6.4— Transmission
6.2.6.5— Change of Spectral Distribution
6.2.7— Lighting Approaches
6.2.7.1— Geometric Parameters: Shape or Profile of Object
Transmission and Backlighting
Structured Lighting
6.2.7.2— Front Lighting
Light Field Illumination: Metal Surfaces
Dark-Field Illumination: Surface Finish and Texture
Directional Lighting
Polarized Light
Chromaticity and Color Discrimination by Filters
6.2.8— Practical Lighting Tips
6.3— Image Formation by Lensing
6.3.1— Optics
6.3.2— Conventional Imaging
6.3.2.1— Image Formation in General
6.3.2.2— Focusing
6.3.3.3— Focal Length
6.3.3.4— F-Number
6.3.3.5— Other Parameters in Specifying Imaging System
1— Working Distance
2— Field Angle
3— Field of View
4— Magnification
5— Resolution
6— Depth of Field
6.3.3.6— Distortion and Aberrations in Optics
Geometric Distortions
Aberrations
1— Chromaticity
2— Sphericity
3— Coma
4— Astigmatism
5— Field Curvature
6— Vignetting
6.3.3.7— Different Types of Objectives
Video Camera Objectives
35-mm Camera Objectives
Reprographic Objectives
Microscope Objectives
Zoom Objectives
6.3.3.8— Miscellaneous Comments
Cylindrical Lens
Special Lenses
Cleanliness
6.3.4— Practical Selection of Objective Parameters
6.3.4.1— Conventional Optics
6.3.4.2— Aspherical Image Formation
6.3.4.3— Telecentric Imaging
6.3.4.4— Beam Splitter
6.3.4.5— Spilt Imaging
6.4— Image Scanning
6.4.1— Scanned Sensors: Television Cameras
6.4.2— Flying Spot Scanner
6.4.3— Mixed Scanning
References
Optics/Lighting
7— Image Conversion
7.1— Television Cameras
7.1.1— Frame and Field
7.1.2— Video Signal
Composite Video
Noncomposite Video
7.1.3— Cameras and Computers
7.1.4— Timing Considerations
7.1.5— Camera Features
Automatic Light Range (ALR) or Automatic Light Control (ALC)
Automatic Black Level
Automatic Gain Control
Automatic Lens Drive Circuit
7.1.6— Alternative Image-Capturing Techniques
7.2— Sensors
7.2.1— Charge-Coupled Devices
7.2.2— Matrix-Addressed Solid-State Sensors
Charge Injection Device
Metal-Oxide Semiconductor
Charge Prime Device
Complementary Metal Oxide Sensor: CMOS
Photodiode Matrix Sensors
7.2.3— Line Scan Sensors
7.2.4— TDI Cameras
7.2.5— Special Solid-State Cameras
7.2.6— Performance Parameters
Aspect Ratio and Geometry
Geometric Distortion and Linearity
Detectivity
Quantum Efficiency (Figure 7.7)
Responsivity
Dynamic Range
Sensitivity
Fixed Pattern Noise
Gamma
Saturation
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
Shading or Signal Uniformity
Color Response
Time Constants ("Lag, Stickiness, Smear")
Dark Current
Blooming
Aliasing
Crosstalk
7.3— Camera and System Interface
7.3.1— A/D Converter
7.3.2— Digitization
7.3.3— What Is a Pixel?
7.4— Frame Buffers and Frame Grabbers
7.5— Digital Cameras
7.6— Smart Cameras
7.7— Sensor Alternatives
References
8— Image Processing and Decision-Making
8.1— Image Processing
Enhancement/Preprocessing
Segmentation
Coding/Feature Extraction
Image Analysis/Classification/Interpretation
8.2— Image Enhancement/Preprocessing
8.2.1— Pixel Transformations
Scaling
Addition or Subtraction of a Constant to Each Pixel
Inverting
8.2.2— Global Transformations
Smoothing in Time
Subtraction
Multiplication
8.2.3— Neighborhood Transformations
Binary Neighborhood Processing
Dilation (Growing)
Erosion (Shrinking)
Single Point Removal
Skeletonization
Gray Scale Neighboring Processing
8.2.4 Spatial Filters
8.3— Segmentation
8.3.1— Windows
8.3.2— Region Segmentation
Adaptive Thresholding
Pixel Counting
Max/Min/Average Gray Scale
Repeated Thresholding
Histogramming
Localized Thresholding
8.3.3— Edge Segmentation
8.3.4— Morphology
8.4— Coding/Feature Extraction
8.4.1— Miscellaneous Scalar Features
Pixel Counting
Edge Finding
8.4.2— Shape Features
8.4.3— Pattern Matching
Binary
Gray-Scale Pattern Matching
8.5— Image Analysis/Classification/Interpretation
8.6— Decision-Making
8.6.1— Heuristic
8.6.2— Decision Theoretic
8.6.3— Syntactic Analysis
8.6.4— Edge Tracking
8.7— A Word about Gray Scale
8.8— Summary
References
Image Processing
9— Three-Dimensional Machine Vision Techniques
9.1— Stereo
9.2— Stereopsis
9.3— Active Imaging
9.4— Simple Triangulation Range Finding
9.4.1— Range from Focusing
9.4.2— Active Triangulation Range Finder
9.4.3— Time-of-Flight Range Finders
9.5— Surface Measurement Using Shading Data
9.6— Depth from Texture Gradient
9.7— Applications
References
Papers from Third International Conference on Robot Vision and Sensory Controls, November 1983, Spie...
10— Applications of Machine Vision in Leading User Industries
10.1— Semiconductor Industry
10.2— Electronic Manufacturing
10.3— Automotive Industry
10.3.1— Taxonomy of Machine Vision Applications in the Auto Industry
10.3.2— Specific Applications of Machine Vision in the Automotive Industry
10.4— Application-Specific Machine Vision Systems in the Container Market
10.5— Applications of Machine Vision in the Pharmaceutical Industry
10.5.1— Packaging/Product Integrity
10.5.2— OCR/OCV
10.5.3— Glassware Inspection
10.5.4— List of Applications in Pharmaceuticals
10.5.5— Validation
10.6— Analysis of the Sale of Machine Vision to the Food Industry
10.7— Application-Specific Machine Vision Systems in the Printing Industry
10.8— Wood
10.8.1— Why Automate?
10.8.2— Scanning/Optimization Systems
10.8.2.1— Volume-Measurement-Based Optimization
10.8.2.2— Value-Based Optimization
10.8.2.3— Grade-Based Optimization
10.8.3— Bucking Optimizers
10.8.4— Primary Breakdown Optimizers
10.8.5— Cant Optimizers
10.8.6— Edger and Trimmer Optimizers
10.8.7— Log Scanners
10.8.8— Current Change-Impacting Optimizers
10.8.9— Non-Optical Scanning
10.8.10— Miscellaneous Applications
Truck Stack Volume
Fiber Size Measuring
Color-Based Vision for Color Matching
11— Common Generic Applications Found in Manufacturing
11.1— Alignment
11.2— Metrology and Machine Vision - Overview
11.2.1— Metrology and Machine Vision - Component Analysis
Optics
Camera
Vision Computer
11.2.3— Summary
11.3— Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
Lighting
11.4— Optical Character Verification (OCV)/Print Quality Inspection (PQI)
11.4.1— Principle Review
11.5— Review of Defect Detection Issues
11.5.1— Overview
11.5.2— Gray Scale/Photometric
11.5.3— Data Analysis
11.5.4— Detecting Defects in Products
11.6— Two Dimensional Symbology
11.7— Color Based Machine Vision
11.7.1— Light, Color and Human Vision
11.7.2— Machine Vision Technology and Color
11.7.3— Application Issues
11.7.4— Technical Concerns
12— Evaluating Machine Vision Applications
12.1— Assembly Verification
12.2— Dimensional Measurements
12.3— Part Location
12.4— Flaw Detection
12.5— OCR/OCV
12.6— Line Scan Capture Implications
12.7— Summary
13— Application Analysis and Implementation
13.1— Systematic Planning
13.1.1— Know Your Company
13.1.2— Developing a Team
13.1.3— Develop a Project Profile
1— Perceived Value
2— Cost-Justifiable
3— Recurring Concern
4— Straightforward
5— Corrective Action
6— Technical Feasibility
7— User-Friendly Potential
8— Dedicated Line
9— Long Line Life
10— Operation Champion
11— Management Commitment
13.2— Specification Development
13.2.1— Specification Review from Machine Vision Perspective
13.2.1.1— Lighting
13.2.1.2— Optics
13.2.1.3— Sensors and Cameras
13.2.1.4— Preprocessing and Processing
13.2.1.5— Image Analysis
13.2.1.6— Mounting and Interface
13.2.1.7— Reports
13.2.1.8— Access Controls and Visual Displays
13.2.2— Writing Final Specification
1— Scope
2— Part Description and Specification
3— Acceptance
13.3— Getting Information on Machine Vision
13.3.1— Company Personnel
13.3.2— Vendor Representatives
13.3.3— Consultants
13.3.4— Technical Society Meetings and Papers
13.3.5— Trade Journals
13.4— Project Management
13.4.1— Determine Project Responsibility
13.4.2— Writing a Project Plan
13.4.3— Request for Proposal
13.4.4— Vendor Conference
13.4.5— Proposal Evaluation
13.4.6— Vendor Site Visits
13.4.7— ROI Analysis
13.4.8— Issuing Purchase Order
13.5— Project-Planning Advice
References
Applications
14— Alternatives to Machine Vision
14.1— Laser-Based Triangulation Techniques
14.2— Simple Photoelectric Vision
14.3— Linear Diode Arrays
14.4— Fiber-Optic Arrangements
14.5— Laser Scanners
14.6— Laser Interferometer
14.7— Electro-Optical Speed Measurements
14.8— Ultrasonics
14.9— Eddy Current
14.10— Acoustics
14.11— Touch-Sensitive Probes
Appendix A— Glossary
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Appendix B— Machine Vision Application Checklist
Section 1— Production Process
Section 2— Benefits of Inspection
Section 3— Application
Section 4— Part to Be Inspected
Section 5— Material Handling?
Section 6— Operator Interface
Section 7— Machine Interfaces
Section 8— Environmental Issues
Section 9— System Reliability/Availability:
Section 10— Other Issues/Requirements
Section 11— Acceptance Test/Buyoff Procedure
Section 12— Other Responsibilities
Index
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