Cover
Half Title
Title
Copyright
CONTENTS
Acknowledgements
Introduction
Abbreviations
List of conventions observed in this book
The Turkish alphabet and writing conventions
Part 1 Phonology: the sound system
1 Phonological units
1.1 Consonants and vowels
1.1.1 Consonants
1.1.1.1 Consonants and their allophones
1.1.2 Vowels
1.1.2.1 Vowels and their allophones
1.1.2.2 Long vowels
1.2 The distribution of consonants and vowels
1.2.1 Consonant clusters
2 Sound changes produced in the stem by suffixation
2.1 Alternations of voiceless/voiced consonants: ‘p’/‘b’, ‘t’/‘d’, ‘k’/‘g’, ‘k’/‘ğ’, ‘ç’/‘c’
2.2 Alternations of single consonants with double consonants
2.3 Vowel/Ø alternation
2.4 Short/long vowel alternations
2.5 æ/e alternation
2.6 Alternation of ‘a’, ‘e’, ‘u’ and ‘ü’ with ‘ı’ and ‘i’
3 Vowel harmony
3.1 Types of vowel harmony
3.2 Vowel harmony in suffixes and clitics
3.2.1 Vowel harmony in I-type suffixes
3.2.2 Vowel harmony in A-type suffixes
3.3 Vowel harmony in roots
3.4 Exceptions to vowel harmony
4 Word stress
4.1 Stress in roots
4.1.1 Regular roots
4.1.2 Irregular roots and stems
4.2 Stress in compounds
4.3 Stress in suffixes
4.3.1 Stressable suffixes
4.3.2 Unstressable suffixes and clitics
4.3.2.1 The effect of unstressable suffixes and clitics on word stress
5 Intonation and sentence stress
5.1 The intonation contours of Turkish
5.2 Position of stress in the intonational phrase
5.2.1 Primary stress
5.2.2 Secondary stress
5.3 Sentences with more than one intonation contour
Part 2 Morphology: the structure of words
6 Principles of suffixation
6.1 The form of suffixes
6.1.1 Vowel alternation in suffixes
6.1.2 Consonant alternation in suffixes: ‘ç’/‘c’, ‘t’/‘d’ and ‘k’/‘g’
6.1.3 The attachment of a suffix to a root or stem: deletable vowels and consonants
6.2 Irregular changes in roots and suffixes under (further) suffixation
6.3 The order of suffixation
7 Word classes, derivation and derivational suffixes
7.1 Word classes
7.1.1 Nominals
7.1.2 Verbs
7.1.3 Postpositions
7.1.4 Conjunctions and discourse connectives
7.1.5 Interjections
7.2 Derivation
7.2.1 Suffixes that attach to verbs
7.2.1.1 Suffixes that attach to verbs to form nominals
7.2.1.2 Suffixes that attach to verbs to form verbs
7.2.2 Suffixes that attach to nominals
7.2.2.1 Suffixes that attach to nominals to form verbs
7.2.2.2 Suffixes that attach to nominals to form nominals
7.3 The internal ordering of derivational suffixes
7.4 Prefixation
8 Inflectional suffixes
8.1 Nominal inflectional suffixes
8.1.1 The plural suffix -lAr
8.1.2 Possessive suffixes
8.1.3 Case suffixes
8.1.4 Other nominal inflectional markers
8.2 Verbal inflectional suffixes
8.2.1 Voice suffixes
8.2.1.1 Causative
8.2.1.2 Passive
8.2.1.3 Reflexive
8.2.1.4 Reciprocal
8.2.2 The negative marker
8.2.3 Tense/aspect/modality markers
8.2.3.1 Position 1
8.2.3.2 Position 2
8.2.3.3 Position 3
8.3 The copula ‘be’, copular markers and -DIr
8.3.1 The copula ‘be’
8.3.2 The copular markers -(y)DI, -(y)mIș and -(y)sA
8.3.3 -DIr
8.4 Person markers
8.5 Subordinating suffixes
8.5.1 Multi-functional subordinating suffixes: -DIK, -(y)AcAK, -mA, -mAK
8.5.1.1 -DIK and -(y)AcAK
8.5.1.2 -mA and -mAK
8.5.2 Subordinating suffixes which have a single function
8.5.2.1 -(y)An and -(y)Iș
8.5.2.2 Subordinating suffixes which only form converbs
9 Reduplication
9.1 Emphatic reduplication
9.2 m-reduplication
9.3 Doubling
9.3.1 Doubling in lexical formations
10 Noun compounds
10.1 Bare compounds
10.1.1 Bare noun compounds
10.1.2 Adjective-noun compounds
10.2 -(s)I compounds
10.3 Embedding compounds within other compounds
10.4 Separability of the constituents of compounds
11 Clitics
11.1 The clitics of Turkish
11.1.1 The properties of particular clitics
11.1.1.1 bile
11.1.1.2 dA
11.1.1.3 -(y)sA/ise
11.1.1.4 ki
11.1.1.5 mI
11.1.1.6 ya
11.2 Classification of clitics by relative power
11.2.1 Combinations of clitics within the intonational phrase
11.2.2 The combination of clitics with the negative marker -mA
Part 3 Syntax: the structure of sentences
12 Simple and complex sentences
12.1 Constituents of a sentence: subject and predicate
12.1.1 Predicate
12.1.1.1 Verbal sentences
12.1.1.2 Nominal sentences
12.1.1.3 The complementarity of -(y)- and var/yok with ol-
12.1.2 Expression of the subject
12.2 Agreement of subject and predicate
12.2.1 Person and number marking on the predicate
12.2.2 Agreement of the predicate with different types of plural subject
12.2.2.1 Subject marked with the plural suffix
12.2.2.2 Subjects containing determiners
12.2.2.3 Pronominalized determiners as subjects
12.2.2.4 Conjoined subjects
12.2.3 Personal pronouns as subject complements
12.3 Complex sentences and subordination
12.4 Functional sentence types
13 The verb phrase
13.1 Constituents of the verb phrase
13.1.1 The verb
13.1.2 Complements of the verb
13.1.2.1 Direct object
13.1.2.2 Oblique object
13.1.3 Adverbials
13.2 Transitivity and voice
13.2.1 Causative constructions
13.2.1.1 Multiple occurrences of the causative suffix
13.2.1.2 Causatives of verbs of emotion
13.2.2 Passive constructions
13.2.2.1 Passivizing a transitive verb
13.2.2.2 Expressing the agent in a passive sentence
13.2.2.3 Impersonal passives
13.2.2.4 Double passive constructions
13.2.3 Constructions with non-productive voice suffixes
13.2.3.1 Reflexive constructions
13.2.3.2 Reciprocal constructions
13.2.4 Combinations of voice suffixes
13.3 Auxiliary verbs
13.3.1 Compound verb forms
13.3.1.1 Compound verb forms containing bound auxiliaries
13.3.1.2 Compound verb forms containing free auxiliaries
13.3.2 Nominal-verb compounds
14 The noun phrase
14.1 Structure of the noun phrase
14.1.1 Items which can function as the head of a noun phrase
14.1.2 Modifiers in the noun phrase
14.2 Countability
14.2.1 Uses of the indefinite article bir with noun phrases that do not denote discrete entities
14.3 Nominal inflection
14.3.1 Number
14.3.1.1 Plural marking with -lAr
14.3.1.2 Further uses of the plural suffix -lAr
14.3.1.3 Transnumeral uses of the unmarked form
14.3.2 Possession
14.3.2.1 Marking possession in -(s)I compounds
14.3.3 Case
14.3.3.1 The non-case-marked noun phrase
14.3.3.2 The accusative case marker
14.3.3.3 The dative case marker
14.3.3.4 The locative case marker
14.3.3.5 The ablative case marker
14.3.3.6 The genitive case marker
14.4 The genitive-possessive construction
14.5 Partitive constructions
14.5.1 The bare-headed partitive construction with ablative-marked modifier
14.5.2 The -(s)I-marked partitive construction with ablative-marked modifier
14.5.3 The -(s)I-marked partitive construction with genitive-marked modifier
14.5.4 Other features of partitive constructions
14.6 Stress in noun phrases
15 Adjectival constructions, determiners and numerals
15.1 Functions of adjectivals
15.2 Adjectives
15.2.1 Forming adjectives by means of derivational suffixes
15.2.2 Intensive forms
15.3 Complex adjectivals
15.3.1 Adjective + noun
15.3.2 Locative-marked noun phrase
15.3.3 Ablative-marked noun phrase
15.3.4 Noun phrase marked with -lI
15.3.5 Noun phrase marked with -lIk
15.3.6 Locative-marked noun phrase + -ki
15.3.7 Temporal adverbial + -ki
15.3.8 Noun phrase + diye
15.3.9 Relative clause
15.3.10 Possessive-marked noun phrase + adjective (truncated relative clause)
15.4 Modification of adjectives
15.4.1 General modification
15.4.1.1 By simple adverbials of degree
15.4.1.2 By complex adverbials
15.4.2 Comparatives
15.4.3 Superlatives
15.5 Complementation of adjectives
15.6 Determiners
15.6.1 Indefinite determiners
15.6.2 Definite determiners
15.7 Numerals
15.7.1 Cardinal numerals
15.7.2 Ordinal numerals
15.7.3 Distributive numerals
15.8 The enumerator tane and measure/type terms
15.9 The position of determiners and numerals within the noun phrase
15.9.1 Numerals with determiners
15.9.2 Determiners or numerals with adjectives
15.9.3 Determiners or numerals with complex adjectivals formed with -DAn, -lI or -lIK
15.9.4 Determiners or numerals with locative-marked complex adjectivals
15.9.5 Determiners or numerals with adjectivals formed with -ki
15.9.6 Determiners or numerals with relative clauses
16 Adverbial constructions
16.1 Types of adverbial construction
16.1.1 Simple adverbs
16.1.2 Adjectives used as adverbs
16.1.3 Doubled forms
16.1.4 Noun phrases without case marking
16.1.5 Noun phrases with oblique case marking
16.1.6 Noun or adjective suffixed with -CA
16.1.7 Noun phrase suffixed with -DIr
16.1.8 Postpositional phrases
16.1.9 Constructions with olarak
16.1.10 Constructions with olmak üzere
16.1.11 Adverbial clauses
16.2 Syntactic functions of adverbials
16.3 Modal adverbials
16.4 Circumstantial adverbials
16.4.1 Time adverbials
16.4.1.1 Location in time
16.4.1.2 Duration
16.4.1.3 Frequency
16.4.1.4 Other time adverbials
16.4.2 Place adverbials
16.4.3 Manner adverbials
16.4.4 Other types of circumstantial adverbial
16.5 Adverbials of quantity or degree
16.6 Adverbials of respect
16.7 Exclusive adverbials
16.8 Particularizing adverbials
16.9 Modification of adverbs
17 Postpositional phrases
17.1 Structure of the postpositional phrase
17.2 Bare postpositions
17.2.1 Postpositions taking non-case-marked or genitive complements
17.2.2 Postpositions taking dative complements
17.2.3 Postpositions taking ablative complements
17.3 Possessive-marked postpositions
17.3.1 Group 1: spatial relations
17.3.1.1 Group 1 possessive-marked postpositions with genitive complements
17.3.1.2 Group 1 possessive-marked postpositions with non-case-marked complements
17.3.1.3 Particular features of individual postpositions in Group 1
17.3.2 Group 2: abstract relations
17.3.2.1 Particular features of individual postpositions in Group 2
17.4 Syntactic functions of the postpositional phrase
17.4.1 Adverbial function
17.4.2 Adjectival function
17.4.3 Predicative function
18 Pronouns
18.1 Personal pronouns
18.1.1 Simple personal pronouns
18.1.2 kendi
18.1.2.1 Bare form kendi
18.1.2.2 Inflected kendi-: emphatic, reflexive, simple pronominal and resumptive usages
18.1.3 kendi kendi-
18.1.4 The reciprocal pronoun birbir- ‘each other’, ‘one another’
18.1.5 The omission and usage of personal pronouns
18.1.5.1 Conditions under which personal pronouns are used
18.2 Demonstrative pronouns: bu ‘this (one)’, șu ‘this/that (one)’, o ‘that (one)’
18.3 Locative and directional pronouns
18.3.1 Locative pronouns: bura- ‘here’, șura- ‘here’, ‘over there’ and ora- ‘there’
18.3.2 Directional pronouns
18.4 Pronominalized adjectives, numerals and determiners
18.5 Pronominal expressions with -ki
18.6 Other pronominal expressions
18.6.1 Pronominal quantifiers
18.6.2 insan ‘one’
18.6.3 șey
19 Questions
19.1 Questions with mI
19.1.1 Yes/no questions
19.1.1.1 Direct yes/no questions
19.1.1.2 Tag questions
19.1.2 Alternative questions
19.1.3 Positions for mI other than the end of the sentence
19.1.4 The effect of placing mI after a particular phrase
19.1.5 Yes/no questions containing a(nother) stressed phrase
19.2 Wh-questions
19.2.1 Wh-phrases
19.2.1.1 kim ‘who’
19.2.1.2 ne ‘what’
19.2.1.3 nere- ‘where’
19.2.1.4 hangi ‘which’
19.2.1.5 kaç ‘how many’
19.2.1.6 ne kadar ‘how much’
19.2.1.7 ne zaman ‘when’
19.2.1.8 neden, niye, niçin ‘why’
19.2.1.9 nasıl ‘how’
19.2.2 The position of wh-phrases in a sentence
19.2.3 Wh-phrases and stressed phrases
19.2.4 Multiple wh-phrases
19.3 Echo questions
19.4 Questioning parts of subordinate clauses
19.5 Modal adverbs used in questions
19.5.1 hani
19.5.2 acaba
19.5.3 yoksa
19.5.4 bakalım
19.6 Rhetorical question forms in narrative
20 Negation
20.1 -mA
20.1.1 Negating clauses with simple verbs
20.1.2 Negating clauses with compound verb forms
20.1.3 -(y)Ip . . . -mA ‘whether/if . . . (or not)’
20.2 değil
20.2.1 Negating nominal sentences
20.2.2 Negating verbal sentences
20.2.3 değil in elliptical sentences
20.3 yok
20.4 The negative connective ne . . . ne ‘neither . . . nor’
20.5 Expressions interacting with negation
20.5.1 hiç ‘never’, ‘ever’, ‘at all’
20.5.2 hiçbir ‘no’, ‘any’, and expressions containing hiçbir and herhangi bir ‘no’, ‘any’
20.5.3 (hiç) kimse ‘no one’, ‘anyone’
20.5.4 Modifiers of negation markers
20.5.4.1 asla ‘never’, ∇katiyen ‘never’
20.5.4.2 pek ‘much’, ‘very’
20.5.4.3 o kadar ‘so’, ‘such’, ‘all that’
20.6 Expressions interacting with negation in subordinate clauses
20.6.1 Expressions interacting with negation in noun clauses
20.6.2 Expressions interacting with negation in relative clauses and adverbial clauses
20.7 Sakın ‘be sure’, ‘mind (you don’t)’, ‘I wonder if . . .’, ‘I do hope . . .’
21 Tense, aspect and modality
21.1 The expression of tense, aspect and modality in Turkish
21.2 Tense
21.2.1 Past tense
21.2.2 Present tense
21.2.3 Future tense
21.3 Aspect
21.3.1 Perfective and imperfective
21.3.2 Subdivisions of imperfective: progressive and habitual
21.3.3 Events and states
21.3.4 Aspect in nominal sentences
21.3.4.1 The distinction between oldu and -(y)DI/idi or vardı
21.3.4.2 Habitual aspect in nominal sentences
21.3.4.3 Other meanings of oluyor
21.4 Modality
21.4.1 Generalizations and hypotheses
21.4.1.1 Statements of permanent or generalized validity
21.4.1.2 The use of -DIr in formal writing
21.4.1.3 Hypothetical and counterfactual situations
21.4.1.4 Assumptions
21.4.2 Possibility and necessity
21.4.2.1 The expression of possibility
21.4.2.2 The expression of necessity/obligation
21.4.3 Evidentially marked statements with -mIș or -(y)mIș
21.4.3.1 Information-based evidential statements
21.4.3.2 Result-based evidential statements
21.4.3.3 Use of the evidential copula to express a newly discovered state of affairs
21.4.3.4 Evidentiality in questions
21.4.4 Volitional utterances
21.4.4.1 Wishes: -sA(ydI)
21.4.4.2 Commands
21.4.4.3 Suggestions: first person optative forms -(y)AyIm, -(y)AlIm
21.4.4.4 Deliberation about possible action: questions with -sAm, -sAk
21.4.4.5 Requests and offers: second person aorist interrogative
21.4.4.6 Expression of commitment: first person aorist
21.5 Tense, aspect and modality in compound verb forms
21.5.1 Compound forms in which the lexical verb is marked with -mIș
21.5.1.1 The resultative usage of compound verb forms with -mIș
21.5.2 Compound forms in which the lexical verb is marked with -(I)yor
21.5.3 Compound forms in which the lexical verb is marked with -(y)AcAk
21.5.4 Compound forms in which the lexical verb is marked with -(A/I)r or -mAz
21.5.5 The addition of the past copula -(y)DI to compound verb forms
22 Definiteness, specificity and generic reference
22.1 Definite status
22.2 Indefinite status
22.2.1 Specific and non-specific indefinites
22.3 Categorial status
22.4 Generic reference
22.4.1 Generic reference by singular noun phrases
22.4.1.1 The bare generic
22.4.1.2 The indefinite generic
22.4.2 Generic reference by plural noun phrases
22.4.3 Generic noun phrases as direct objects
22.5 The effect of word order on referential status
22.6 The effect of stress on referential status
22.7 The effect of tense, aspect and modality on referential status
23 Word order
23.1 Unmarked sentences: word order and stress
23.1.1 Verbal sentences
23.1.2 Nominal sentences
23.1.2.1 Linking sentences
23.1.2.2 Existential sentences
23.2 The unmarked order of major constituents
23.2.1 The immediately preverbal position
23.2.2 Subjects and modal adverbs
23.2.3 Objects
23.2.4 Adverbial phrases
23.3 Word order variations
23.3.1 The position of focused constituents: the preverbal area
23.3.2 The position of background information: the postverbal area
23.3.3 The topic position
23.3.3.1 Topic shifters
23.4 Dislocated constituents
23.4.1 Dislocated adjectival phrases
23.4.2 Dislocated constituents of noun clauses
24 Noun clauses
24.1 Finite and non-finite noun clauses
24.2 Bare finite noun clauses (finite noun clauses without a subordinator)
24.2.1 Subject or object of the verb de-
24.2.2 Interrogative sentence as subject or object of a verb of cognition
24.2.3 Subject or object of the verb iste-
24.3 Finite noun clauses with a subordinator
24.3.1 Clauses formed with diye
24.3.2 Clauses formed with ki
24.3.2.1 Subject or object of the verb de-
24.3.2.2 Subject or object of a verb of perception or cognition
24.3.2.3 Subject or object of the verb iste-
24.3.2.4 Subject of adjectival predicates
24.3.3 Clauses formed with gibi
24.4 Non-finite noun clauses
24.4.1 Clauses formed with -mAK
24.4.1.1 The non-case-marked form -mAk
24.4.1.2 The accusative-marked form -mAyI
24.4.1.3 The oblique case-marked forms: -mAyA, -mAktA (-mAdA) and -mAktAn
24.4.1.4 Passive -mAk clauses as subjects
24.4.2 Clauses formed with -mA-
24.4.2.1 -mA without possessive suffixes
24.4.2.2 -mA with possessive suffixes
24.4.3 Clauses formed with -DIK or -(y)AcAK
24.4.3.1 Indirect statements
24.4.3.2 Indirect questions
24.4.3.3 Other functions of -DIK/-(y)AcAK clauses
24.4.4 Clauses formed with -(y)Iș
24.4.5 Overlapping uses of -mA, -DIK/-(y)AcAK and -(y)Iș
24.4.5.1 As direct object of verbs of perception or cognition
24.4.5.2 As oblique object of verbs of emotion
24.4.6 Omission of genitive marking on the subject of clauses formed with possessive-marked -mA or -DIK/-(y)AcAK
24.4.7 The use of auxiliary ol- in non-finite noun clauses
24.5 Small clauses
24.5.1 Small clauses occurring with main clause transitive verbs
24.5.2 Small clauses occurring with main clause intransitive verbs
24.5.3 Tense/aspect and person marking
24.6 Noun clauses as modifiers in -sI compounds
25 Relative clauses
25.1 Principles of relativization
25.1.1 Markers of non-finite relative clauses: the participle suffixes
25.1.1.1 -(y)An
25.1.1.2 -DIK and -(y)AcAK
25.1.1.3 Summary of strategies of relativization
25.1.2 Relative clauses with embedded noun clauses
25.2 Restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses
25.3 Headless relative clauses
25.4 The expression of tense and aspect in relative clauses
25.4.1 The use of auxiliary ol- in relative clauses
25.4.1.1 The omission of olan: truncated relative clauses
25.5 Other complex adjectival constructions
25.6 Finite relative clauses with ki
25.6.1 ki in non-restrictive relative clauses
25.6.2 ki in restrictive relative clauses
25.6.3 Comment usage of ki
26 Adverbial clauses
26.1 Finite adverbial clauses
26.1.1 Clauses formed with diye
26.1.1.1 Reason
26.1.1.2 Purpose
26.1.1.3 Precaution
26.1.1.4 Understanding
26.1.2 Clauses formed with ki
26.1.2.1 Location in time
26.1.2.2 Purpose
26.1.2.3 Result
26.1.2.4 Basis for deduction
26.1.3 Clauses formed with madem(ki)
26.1.4 Clauses formed with nasıl ki
26.1.5 Clauses formed with (sanki) . . . -mIș/-(y)mIș gibi
26.1.6 Clauses formed with -DI mI
26.1.7 Clauses formed with dA
26.2 Non-finite adverbial clauses: structural characteristics
26.2.1 Genitive case marking or its absence in the subject of a non-finite adverbial clause
26.2.2 Possibility of the adverbial clause having a separate subject from that of the superordinate clause
26.2.3 Tense and aspect marking in non-finite adverbial clauses
26.3 Non-finite adverbial clauses: semantic classification
26.3.1 Addition
26.3.2 Agreement
26.3.3 Concession
26.3.4 Condition
26.3.5 Conjunction
26.3.6 Dismissal
26.3.7 Information base for an utterance
26.3.8 Manner
26.3.9 Means
26.3.10 Preference
26.3.11 Proportionality
26.3.12 Purpose
26.3.13 Quantity or degree
26.3.14 Reason
26.3.15 Substitution
26.3.16 Time
27 Conditional sentences
27.1 The grammatical marking of conditional clauses
27.1.1 The verbal suffix -sA and the copular marker -(y)sA (or ise)
27.1.2 The conditional conjunctions eğer and ∇șayet
27.2 Predictive conditionals
27.2.1 Aorist + -(y)sA
27.2.1.1 Open conditionals
27.2.1.2 Generic and habitual conditionals
27.2.1.3 Compound forms with olursa
27.2.2 Open and habitual conditionals expressed without aorist marking
27.2.3 -sA
27.2.3.1 -sA used without past copular marking of the main clause
27.2.3.2 -sA used with past copular marking of the main clause
27.2.4 -sAydI
27.2.5 -sAymIș
27.2.6 Compound forms with olsa/olsaydı/olsaymıș
27.3 Knowable conditions
27.4 Further uses of -sA and -(y)sA as subordinators
27.4.1 -sA . . . -sA
27.4.2 -sA and -(y)sA/ise with dA
27.4.2.1 -sA with dA
27.4.2.2 -(y)sA/ise with dA
27.5 Universal conditional clauses (containing a question phrase)
27.5.1 Universal conditional concessives
27.6 Conditional constructions without conditional suffixes
27.6.1 -DIğI takdirde, -mAsI durumunda/halinde
27.6.2 -DI mI
28 Conjunctions, co-ordination and discourse connection
28.1 The juxtaposition of two or more constituents
28.2 The subordinating suffixes -(y)Ip and -(y)ArAk
28.3 Conjunctions and discourse connectives
28.3.1 Additive
28.3.1.1 ve, -(y)lA/ile, dA ‘and’, dA ‘too’, bile ‘even’, ve de ‘and what’s more’, bir de ‘and also’, ya ‘and what . . .’
28.3.1.2 üstelik, üstüne üstlük, hem, hem (de), buna ek olarak, ayrıca, kaldı ki ‘and (what’s more)’, ‘also’, sonra ‘and then’
28.3.1.3 hatta, dahası ‘even’, ‘indeed’
28.3.1.4 șöyle dursun/bir yana/bırak(ın) ‘let alone’
28.3.2 Enumerating
dA . . . dA, hem . . . hem, gerek . . . (ve) gerek (se de) ‘both . . . and’
28.3.3 Alternative
28.3.3.1 ya da, veya, ∇(ve) yahut (da) yoksa ‘or’, ya . . . ya (da) ‘either . . . or’
28.3.3.2 ister . . . ister, olsun . . . olsun, ha . . . ha, ama . . . ama ‘whether . . . or’
28.3.4 Adversative
28.3.4.1 ama, fakat, ancak, yalnız ‘but’
28.3.4.2 gene (de)/yine (de) ‘(and) yet’, ‘(and) still’, bununla birlikte/beraber, buna karșın/rağmen ‘despite this’, ‘nevertheless’
28.3.4.3 ne (var) ki/∇mamafih, ‘however’
28.3.4.4 halbuki/oysa (ki), ‘whereas’, ‘however’
28.3.4.5 dA, ya ‘but’, -(y)sA/ise ‘as for’, ‘whereas’
28.3.4.6 gerçi/∇hoș ‘it’s true that’, ‘admittedly’, ‘actually’, aslında ‘actually’
28.3.4.7 ki and ya
28.3.4.8 peki ‘but’
28.3.4.9 yok ‘but’
28.3.5 Expansive
28.3.6 Causal
28.3.7 Inferential
28.3.8 Temporal
28.3.9 Conditional
28.3.10 Organizational
28.3.11 Corroborative
28.3.12 Reminding
28.3.13 Constructive
28.4 The effects of co-ordination and discourse connection
28.4.1 The elision of suffixes and clitics in co-ordinated constructions
28.4.1.1 Omission of copular markers and person markers
28.4.1.2 Omission of nominal inflectional markers
28.4.1.3 Omission of other items: -(y)ken, bile, mI, ki
28.4.2 The elision of phrases in co-ordinated constructions
28.4.2.1 The elision of noun phrases in co-ordinated constructions
28.4.3 The elision of noun phrases in other contexts
Appendix 1 Reduplicated stems
Appendix 2 Tense/aspect/modality suffixes
Glossary of grammatical terms
Bibliography
Index