Preface
Acknowledgement
Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Characteristics of Tunnel Fires
1.3 Mitigation Systems in Tunnels
1.4 Incidents in Tunnel
1.4.1 Fires in Road Tunnels
1.4.2 Fires in Rail Tunnels
1.4.3 Fires in Metro Tunnels
1.5 Summary
References
Chapter 2: Fuel and Ventilation-Controlled Fires
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Fire Development in Building Fires
2.3 Fire Development in Tunnel Fires
2.4 Fuel or Ventilation Control in a Compartment Fire
2.5 Fuel or Ventilation Control in a Tunnel with Longitudinal Flow
2.5.1 Fuel Control
2.5.2 Ventilation Control
2.5.3 Determination of Combustion Mode
2.6 Effects of Vitiation on the Combustion Process
2.7 Summary
References
Chapter 3: Tunnel Fire Tests
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Overview of Large-Scale Tunnel Experiments
3.3 Large-Scale Tunnel Fire Tests
3.3.1 Ofenegg 1965
3.3.2 Glasgow 1970
3.3.3 The West Meon Tests in the Early 1970s
3.3.4 Zwenberg 1975
3.3.5 P.W.R.I. 1980
3.3.6 TUB-VTT Tests 1986
3.3.7 EUREKA EU499 Tests 1990-1992
3.3.8 Memorial Tunnel Tests 1993-1995
3.3.9 Shimizu No. 3 2001
3.3.10 Second Benelux Tests 2002
3.3.11 Runehamar 2003
3.3.12 METRO Tests 2011
3.3.13 Carleton University Laboratory Train Tests 2011
3.3.14 Singapore Tests 2011
3.3.15 Runehamar Test 2013
3.4 Model-Scale Fire Tests
3.4.1 The TNO Tests
3.4.2 Automatic Water Spray System Tests
3.4.3 Longitudinal Ventilation Tests
3.4.4 Point Extraction Ventilation Tests
3.4.5 Tunnel Cross Section Tests
3.5 Summary
References
Chapter 4: Heat Release Rates in Tunnels
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Measured HRR in Different Vehicles
4.2.1 Road Vehicles
4.2.1.1 Passenger Cars
4.2.1.2 Buses
4.2.1.3 Heavy Goods Vehicles
4.2.1.4 Tanker Fires
4.2.1.5 Pool Fires (Liquid)
4.2.1.6 Construction Vehicles
4.2.1.7 Rubber Tyres
4.2.2 Railway Rolling Stock
4.3 Parameters Influencing the HRR
4.3.1 Heat Feedback
4.3.2 Effects of Tunnel Geometry
4.3.3 Effects of Ventilation on Peak HRR
4.3.4 Fuel-Controlled Fires
4.3.5 Ventilation-Controlled Fires
4.4 HRR per Exposed Fuel Surface Area
4.4.1 Liquids
4.4.2 Solid Materials
4.4.3 Vehicle Fires
4.5 Jet Fires
4.6 Spilled Liquid Fires
4.7 HRR for Alternative Fuel Vehicles
4.8 Summary
References
Chapter 5: Fire Growth Rates in Tunnels
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Theory of Fire Growth Rate
5.2.1 Wind-Aided Spread
5.2.2 Relationship Between FGR and Flame Spread Rate
5.2.3 Fuels Consisting of Several Parts
5.3 Correlations for Fire Growth Rate
5.3.1 Comparison with Model-Scale Tests
5.3.2 Comparison with Full-Scale Tests
5.4 The Effects of Windbreaks on Fire Growth Rates
5.5 Summary
References
Chapter 6: Design Fire Curves
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Design Fire Methods
6.2.1 Constant Values for Design Fires
6.2.2 Time-Dependent Methods for Design Fires
6.3 Exponential Design Fire Curve Method with Superposition
6.3.1 Determination of Design Fire Scenarios
6.3.2 Maximum Heat Release Rate
6.3.3 Time to Maximum Heat Release Rate
6.3.4 Energy Content
6.3.5 Reconstruction of a Large-Scale Test
6.3.6 Design Fire for a Tram Carriage
6.3.7 Design Fire for a Road Vehicle
6.4 New Concept for Design Curves
6.4.1 Theoretical Aspects
6.4.2 Calculation
6.5 Summary
References
Chapter 7: Combustion Products from Fires
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Combustion and Fire Chemistry
7.3 Yields
7.4 Emissions from Fires in Vehicles and Tunnels
7.5 Emissions from Batteries and Electrical Vehicles
7.6 Contribution from Tunnel Asphalt Pavement
7.7 Effect of Ventilation Condition
7.8 Effect of Fire Suppression
7.9 Summary
References
Chapter 8: Gas Temperatures
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Interaction of Ventilation Flow with Fire Plume
8.3 Maximum Ceiling Gas Temperature
8.3.1 Fire Plume Mass Flow Rate in a Ventilated Flow
8.3.2 Maximum Ceiling Gas Temperature in a Small Fire
8.3.3 Maximum Ceiling Gas Temperature in a Large Fire
8.4 Position of Maximum Ceiling Gas Temperature
8.5 Ceiling Gas Temperature Distribution
8.5.1 Analytical Solution for Buoyant Flows Under Quiescent Conditions
8.5.2 Theoretical Analysis of Quasi-Steady Stratified Smoke Flows in the Upper Layer
8.5.3 Semiempirical Correlations for Applications
8.5.3.1 High Ventilation
8.5.3.2 Natural Ventilation or Low Ventilation
8.6 One-Dimensional Simple Model
8.7 Summary
References
Chapter 9: Flame Length
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Overview of Flame Length in Open and Enclosure Fires
9.3 Overview of Flame Length in Tunnel Fires
9.4 Flame Lengths in Tunnel Fires
9.4.1 Transition Between Low and High Ventilation Rate
9.4.2 Model of Flame Length in Tunnel Fires
9.4.3 Flame Length with High Ventilation Rate
9.4.4 Flame Length Under Low Ventilation Rate
9.5 Flame Lengths of Jet Fires
9.5.1 Heskestadยดs Model
9.5.2 Delichatsiosยด Model
9.5.3 Lowesmith et al.ยดs Model
9.5.4 Findings Related to Various Alternative Fuel Tanks
9.6 Summary
References
Chapter 10: Heat Flux and Thermal Resistance
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Convective Heat Transfer
10.2.1 Boundary Layer
10.2.2 Reynolds-Colburn Analogy
10.2.3 Forced Convection
10.2.4 Natural Convection
10.2.5 Gas Properties
10.3 Radiative Heat Transfer
10.3.1 Simplification in Engineering Application
10.3.2 View Factor
10.3.3 Radiation Among Multiple Surfaces
10.3.4 Absorbing, Emitting and Scattering Gas
10.4 Heat Conduction
10.4.1 Thermally Thin Materials
10.4.2 Thermally Thick Materials
10.4.2.1 First Boundary Condition
10.4.2.2 Second Boundary Condition
10.4.2.3 Third Boundary Condition
10.4.2.4 Fourth Boundary Condition
10.4.2.5 Complicated Boundary
10.5 Thermal Resistance
10.6 Heat Flux Measurement
10.7 Calculation of Heat Fluxes in Tunnel Fires
10.7.1 Exposed Tunnel Ceiling and Walls at Upper Layer
10.7.2 Heat Flux in Lower Layer
10.7.2.1 Horizontal and Vertical Object Surfaces
View Factors in Tunnels
10.7.2.2 Inclined Target Surfaces
10.7.2.3 Radiation from Vertical Flames in Large Tunnel Fires
10.7.2.4 Verification of the Heat Flux Models in the Lower Layer
10.7.3 Flame Radiation in Small Tunnel Fires
10.7.4 Jet Flame Radiation
10.8 Summary
References
Chapter 11: Fire Spread
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Introduction to the Theory of Ignition
11.2.1 Solids
11.2.1.1 Effect of Velocity
11.2.2 Liquids
11.2.2.1 Release of Liquids
11.2.2.2 Flame Spread over a Liquid Surface
11.2.2.3 The Effect of Macadam
11.3 Fire Spread in Tunnels
11.4 Modelling of Fire Spread
11.5 Summary
References
Chapter 12: Smoke Stratification
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Phenomenon of Smoke Stratification
12.3 Mechanism of Smoke Stratification
12.3.1 Entrainment
12.3.2 Smoke Layer Height
12.4 Smoke Stratification in Tunnels with Natural or Low Ventilation
12.4.1 Early-Stage Smoke Spread Before Smoke Descends to Floor
12.4.2 Smoke Descent Along the Tunnel
12.5 Smoke Stratification in Tunnels with Longitudinal Ventilation
12.6 Summary
References
Chapter 13: Tunnel Fire Ventilation
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Normal Ventilation
13.2.1 Longitudinal Ventilation
13.2.2 Transverse Ventilation
13.2.3 Semi-transverse Ventilation
13.3 Longitudinal Fire Ventilation
13.3.1 Critical Velocity
13.3.1.1 Critical Froude Model
13.3.1.2 Non-dimensional Model
13.3.1.3 Influence of Vehicle Obstruction
13.3.1.4 Influence of Heat Release Rate in Large Fires
13.3.1.5 Influence of Tunnel Width
13.3.1.6 Critical Flame Angle
13.3.1.7 Short Summary
13.3.2 Backlayering Length
13.4 Smoke Extraction
13.4.1 Single-Point Extraction
13.4.2 Two-Point Extraction
13.4.3 Short Summary
13.5 Natural Fire Ventilation
13.5.1 Short Sloped Tunnels
13.5.2 Natural Ventilation Using Short Vertical Shafts
13.6 Cross-Passages
13.7 Rescue Station
13.7.1 Configuration and Function of Rescue Station
13.7.2 Smoke Control
13.7.3 Gas Temperature Beside the Door
13.7.4 Fireproof Door Height
13.8 A Simple Model of Longitudinal Flows
13.9 Summary
References
Chapter 14: Visibility
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Different Methods of Predicting Visibility
14.3 The Influence of Visibility on Egress
14.4 Summary
References
Chapter 15: Tenability
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Combustion Products Related to Toxicity
15.3 Toxicity
15.3.1 Asphyxiants
15.3.2 Irritants
15.4 Fractional Effective Dose (FED)
15.5 Fractional Effective Dose for Incapacitation
15.6 Large-Scale Example of Fraction of an Incapacitation Dose
15.7 Irritant Gas Model
15.8 Acceptance Criteria
15.9 Toxicity and Tenability in Connection with Batteries and Electric Vehicles
15.10 Summary
References
Chapter 16: Fire Suppression and Detection in Tunnels
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Basic Concepts of Fire Suppression Systems
16.2.1 Deluge Water Spray System
16.2.1.1 General Description
16.2.1.2 Specific Technical Information
16.2.2 Water Mist Systems
16.2.3 Automatic Sprinkler Systems
16.2.4 Foam Systems
16.2.5 Mode of Operation
16.3 Tunnel Fire Suppression Tests
16.3.1 Second Benelux 2000-2001
16.3.2 IF Tunnel, UPTUN 2002-2004
16.3.3 IF Tunnel, Marioff, 2004
16.3.4 VSH Hagerbach, Marioff, 2005
16.3.5 San Pedro de Anes Tests, Marioff, 2006
16.3.6 SINTEF Runehamar Tunnel 2007
16.3.7 SOLIT 2008 and SOLIT2 2012
16.3.8 Singapore Tests 2011-2012
16.3.9 SP Runehamar Tunnel Fire Suppression Tests 2013
16.3.10 RISE Runehamar Tunnel Fire Suppression Tests 2016
16.3.11 80 m Long Test Tunnel Fire Suppression Tests 2017
16.3.12 100 m Long Test Tunnel Fire Suppression Tests 2019
16.3.13 A Short Discussion
16.4 Theory of Fire Suppression
16.4.1 Extinguishment Mechanism
16.4.1.1 Surface Cooling
16.4.1.2 Gas Phase Cooling
16.4.1.3 Dilution Effects and Heat Capacity
16.4.1.4 Radiation Attenuation
16.4.1.5 Kinetic and Other Factors
16.4.2 Critical Conditions for Extinction
16.4.2.1 Condensed Phase Extinction
16.4.2.2 Gas Phase Extinction
16.4.3 Fire Suppression
16.4.3.1 Suppression of Gas and Pool Fires
16.4.3.2 Suppression of Solid Fuel Fires
16.4.4 A Short Discussion
16.5 Tunnel Fire Detection
16.5.1 Types of Fire Detection
16.5.2 Summary of Fire Detection Tests in Tunnels
16.5.2.1 Second Benelux Tunnel Fire Detection Tests, 2000/2001
16.5.2.2 Runehamar Tunnel Fire Detection Tests, 2007
16.5.2.3 Viger Tunnel Fire Detection Tests, 2007
16.5.2.4 SP Tunnel Fire Detection Tests in 2015
16.5.2.5 RISE Runehamar Tunnel Fire Detection Tests, 2018
16.5.3 A Short Discussion
16.6 Summary
References
Chapter 17: CFD Modelling of Tunnel Fires
17.1 Introduction
17.2 CFD Basics
17.2.1 Controlling Equations
17.2.2 Equation of State
17.2.3 Turbulence
17.2.3.1 Averaged Navier-Stokes Models
17.2.3.2 Large Eddy Simulation (LES)
17.2.3.3 Direct Numerical Simulation
17.2.4 Discretization Methods
17.2.4.1 Temporal Discretization
17.2.4.2 Spatial Discretization
17.2.5 Solution Algorithms
17.3 Sub-Models Related to Tunnel Fires
17.3.1 Gas Phase Combustion
17.3.2 Condensed Phase Pyrolysis
17.3.2.1 Solid Phase
17.3.2.2 Liquid Phase
17.3.3 Fire Suppression
17.3.4 Wall Function
17.3.5 Heat Transfer
17.3.5.1 Convective Heat Transfer
17.3.5.2 Radiation Heat Transfer
17.3.5.3 Heat Conduction
17.4 Recommendations for CFD Users
17.4.1 Computation Domain and Boundary Conditions
17.4.2 Fire Source
17.4.3 Grid Size
17.4.4 Verification of Modelling
17.5 Limitations of CFD Modelling
17.6 Summary
References
Chapter 18: Scaling Technique
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Methods of Obtaining Scaling Correlations
18.3 Classification of Scaling Techniques
18.3.1 Froude Scaling
18.3.2 Pressure Scaling
18.3.3 Analog Scaling (Cold Gas, Saltwater)
18.4 General Froude Scaling
18.5 Scaling of Heat Fluxes
18.5.1 Scaling of Convective Heat Transfer
18.5.2 Scaling of Radiative Heat Transfer
18.5.3 Scaling of Heat Conduction
18.5.3.1 Thermally Thick Materials
18.5.3.2 Thermally Thin Materials
18.5.4 Scaling of Heat Balance in an Enclosure
18.5.4.1 Heat Loss by Convection Through Vents
18.5.4.2 Heat Loss by Conduction into the Walls
18.5.4.3 Heat Loss by Radiation Through the Vents
18.5.4.4 Global Heat Balance in an Enclosure Fire
18.6 Scaling of Water Sprays
18.6.1 Single Droplet
18.6.2 Water Sprays
18.6.3 Radiation Absorbed by Water Sprays
18.6.4 Droplet Diameter
18.6.5 Surface Cooling
18.6.6 Automatic Sprinkler
18.7 Scaling of Combustible Materials
18.8 Scaling of Wood Pallet Fires
18.9 An Example of Scaling Application in Fire Safety Engineering
18.10 Summary
References
Chapter 19: Fire and Explosion Safety of Alternative Fuel Vehicles
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Fire Incidents Related to Alternative Fuel Vehicles
19.2.1 CNG Vehicles
19.2.2 LPG Vehicles
19.2.3 Battery Electric Vehicles
19.3 Fire Safety Aspects
19.3.1 Heat Release Rates and Design Fires
19.3.2 Fireball
19.4 Explosion Safety Aspects
19.4.1 Explosion in the Open
19.4.2 Difference Between Explosion in the Open and Explosion in a Tunnel
19.4.3 General Knowledge About Explosions in Tunnels
19.4.4 Compressed Gas Tank Rupture in a Tunnel
19.4.5 Liquefied Gas Tank Rupture in a Tunnel
19.4.6 Gas Cloud Explosion in a Tunnel
19.5 Summary
References
Index