Treatise on Process Metallurgy

✍ Scribed by Seshadri Seetharaman, Alexander Mclean, Roderick Guthrie, Seetharaman Sridhar

• Publisher: Elsevier Inc.
• Year: 2014
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 1752
• Category: Library

✦ Table of Contents

Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
Preface
Editor in Chief
Co-Editors-in-Chief
Contributors to Volume 3
Acknowledgement
The Review Committee
Iron and Steel Technology
Ironmaking
Introduction
Early History of Ironmaking
Beginning of Blast Furnace Era
Development to Present Days
From Charcoal to Coke
Ore Preparation
Blast Furnace Process in Brief
Blast Furnace Process for Integrated Steelmaking
Blast Furnace Process Overview
Charging
Burden and Gas Movement
Blast Furnace Zones and Principal Reactions
Casting and Hot Metal Treatment
The Ironmaking Blast Furnace
Construction and Profile
Throat
Shaft
Belly
Bosh
Tuyere Zone
Hearth and Tap Hole
Charging Equipment
Lining and Cooling
Evolution of Blast Furnace Dimension
Auxiliary Units
Iron-Bearing Materials and Additives
Types of Iron Ores
Agglomerates and Additives
Sinter
Sintering Process
Iron-Bearing Materials
Additives
Fuel
Return Fines
Moisture
Sinter Handling
Sinter Quality
Pellets
Pelletizing Process
Green Pellets
Induration
Pellet Quality
Briquettes
Slag Formers in Agglomerates
Limestone
Burnt Lime
BOF Slag
Olivine and Dolomite
Other Additives
Additives in Blast Furnace
DRI and Scrap
Reducing Agents
Coke
Coking
Raw Materials and Blending
Coke-Oven Batteries
Heat-Recovery Cokemaking
Byproduct Cokemaking
Coke Characterization
Composition
Cold Strength
Size
Metallurgical Properties
References
The Direct Reduction of Iron
Introduction
Raw Materials
Iron Ore Deposits, Mineralogy, and Processing
Ore Mineralogy and Deposits
Mining and Beneficiation of Iron Ore
Liberation Size
Separation
Froth Flotation
Magnetic Separation
Products of Physical Beneficiation
Lump Ore
Fine Ore or Concentrate
Low-Grade Iron Ores
Agglomeration of Iron Ore
Pelletization
Mixing
Binders and Additives
Pelletizing Technologies
Pellet Induration
Products
BF Grade
DR-Grade
RHF Pellets
Sintering
Raw Materials
Mixing
Process
Product
Briquetting
Extrusion
Nodulization
Agglomerate Characterization
Reducing Agents
Gas-Based DR
Natural Gas
Syngases
Corex Gas
Coal Gasification Syngas
Integrated Steelmill Off-Gases
Shaft Furnace Reducing Gas
Coal-Based DR
Particle Size
Level of Fixed Carbon
Volatile Matter
Other Impurities
Coal Char Reactivity Index
Ash Fusion Temperature
Free Swelling Index
Caking Property of Coal
Calorific Value
Other Reducing Agents
Biomass
Waste Organics and Char
DR Processes
Thermodynamics of DR
Reduction of Iron Oxide
Natural Gas Reforming
Application to Commercial DR Processes
Kinetics
Kinetics of Solid-State Reduction by CO or Hydrogen
Kinetics of Fluidized Bed Iron Oxide Reduction
Kinetics of Coal-based Reduction in a Rotary Kiln
Glossary
References
Further reading
Hot Metal Pretreatment
Introduction
Desulfurization
Chemistry
Kinetics
Process
Dephosphorization
Chemistry
Kinetics
Processes
Slag Recycling by Hot Metal Dephosphorization
Desiliconization
Chemistry
Kinetics
Process
Influence of Hot Metal Pretreatment on Scrap Melting Capacity
Hot Metal Heating Device
References
Converter Steelmaking
Introduction
History of Development of Converter Steelmaking
Basic Oxygen Furnace
Oxygen Lance and Blowing Practice
BOF Refractory Lining
Basic Oxygen Steelmaking
Process Phenomena in Converter Steelmaking
Slag Formation
Emulsion Phenomena
Postcombustion
Evaluation of Different Converter Processes
Principles of Process Control
Converter Processes for Stainless Steelmaking
AOD Process
Vacuum Processes
On the Physicochemical Basis of Oxygen Steelmaking
On Thermodynamics of Oxygen Converting
On the Physicochemical Simulation of BOF
Future Aspects of Oxygen Converter Process
References
Electric Furnace Steelmaking
Introduction to Electric Steelmaking
Short History of Electric Steelmaking Until Today
Role of Recycling and Electric Steelmaking
AC and DC Furnaces
Raw Materials, Availability, Scrap Classes, Scrap Trading
Furnace Construction
Furnace Cooling
Electrodes
Melting Practice and Metallurgy
Melting Practice and Foaming Slag
Refining in EAF
Carbon Steel Melting Versus Stainless and High-Alloyed Steel Melting
Energy Balance of EAF Process, Electric Energy, Chemical Heating, Preheating, Postcombustion
Special Furnace Constructions
Continuous Charging with Preheating
Preheating in Shaft
Hot Charging of DRI
Hybrid Process for Steelmaking of Scrap and Hot Metal
Environmental and Safety Issues
EAF Dust
EAF Slag
EAF Refractories
Noise
Safety
Future Aspects
References
Secondary Steelmaking
Introduction
Deoxidation
Thermodynamics of Deoxidation Reactions
Kinetics of Deoxidation
Industrial Progress
Desulfurization
Thermodynamics of Desulfurization
Kinetics of Desulfurization
Industrial Progress
Degassing
Solubility of Hydrogen and Nitrogen in Iron
Kinetics of Degassing
Vacuum Methods
Decarburization
Dephosphorization
Heating
Ladle Furnaces
Chemical Heating
Alloying
Summarizing Discussion
References
Inclusion Engineering
Introduction
Nonmetallic Inclusions in Steel
Formation, Growth, and Removal of Inclusions
General Aspects
Control of the Composition of Nonmetallic Inclusions
Silicate Inclusions
Inclusion Control by Calcium Treatment
Inclusions for Grain Refinement
Inclusion Engineering in Practical Steelmaking-A Case of Ball-Bearing Steel
Special Methods for Ultra-Clean Steels
Electro Slag Remelting
Future Trends
References
Continuous Casting of Steel
Introduction
Types of Continuous Casting Machines
Conventional Casters
Near Net Shape Casting
Basic Equipment in Continuous Casting
Tundish
Mold
Strand Cooling and Support Below the Mold
Heat Transfer Models
Three-Dimensional Heat Transfer Model for Continuous Casting, DYN3D [6]
Problem Discretization and Solution Using Parallel MGSNR Method
Determination of the Heat Transfer Coefficients
Leidenfrost Effect
Materials Data
Model Validation
Calculation Example of DYN3D
Fundamentals of Solidification in Continuous Casting
Solidification Structures
Microsegregation
Solidification Paths
Austenite Decomposition
Effects of Alloying Elements
Other Important Fundamental Phenomena in Continuous Casting
Low Ductility Areas of Steels
Inclusions
Modeling of Microstructures
IDS Tool-An Example of Solidification and Microstructure Model for Steels [6,10]
Solidification Calculation
Austenite Decomposition Calculation
Defects
Internal Cracks
Surface Cracks
Segregations
Porosity
Shape Defects
References
How Mold Fluxes Work
Introduction
The Continuous Casting Process
Mold Fluxes
Functions of Mold Fluxes
Mold Flux Behavior in the Mold
Lubrication of Shell by Mold Flux
Powder Consumption
Effect of Casting Variables on Powder Consumption
Effect of Mold Dimensions on Required Powder Consumption
Powder Consumption Variation During an Oscillation Cycle
Heat Transfer in the Mold
Horizontal Heat Flux
Mechanisms of Heat Transfer in Slag Film
Thermal Resistance Between Shell and Mold
Interfacial Thermal Resistance
Changes in Heat Flux During the Oscillation Cycle
Vertical Heat Flux
Steel Flow Rate and Superheat
Efficiency of Heat Transfer
Thermal Insulation of Beds
Variable Heat Transfer
Using Mold Fluxes to Adjust Process Variables
Depth of Molten Slag Pool
Powder Consumption Q
Melting Rate
Solid Slag Film and Horizontal Heat Flux
Vertical Heat Flux
Length of Shell or Meniscus Tip
Effect of Casting Variables on Mold Flux Performance
Mold Dimensions
Casting Speed
Oscillation Characteristics
Mold-Level Control
Metal Flow
Fluctuations in Processes
Application of Electromagnetic Devices
Electromagnetic Stirring
Level Magnetic Field
Electromagnetic Casting
Electromagnetic Braking
Steel Grade
Water Flow Rate
Argon Flow Rate
Properties of Mold Fluxes
Liquidus and Break Temperatures
Viscosity 뜀
Thermal Conductivities
Optical Properties of Mold Slags
Refractive Indices n
Absorption Coefficients 넀
Surface and Interfacial Tension
Density 섀 and Heat Capacity
Crystallization of Mold Fluxes
Selection of Mold Fluxes
Using Mold Fluxes to Minimize Defects and Process Problems
References
Production of Ferroalloys
Classification, Manufacture, and Use of Ferroalloys
Ferrochromium
Ferromanganese
Ferromolybdenum
Ferronickel
Ferrosilicon
Ferrotitanium
Ferrovanadium
Ferrotungsten
Thermodynamics in the Production of Main Ferroalloys
Introduction
Ellingham Diagram
Direct and Indirect Reduction
Smelting Temperature
Thermal Energy Requirements
Alloy Grade and Impurity Levels
Slag-Metal Equilibria
Carbide Formation
Production of LC Ferroalloys
Silicothermic Reduction of Chrome Ore
Oxidation Refining by Oxide Fluxes/Oxygen
Ferrochromium Smelting Technology
Raw Materials
Submerged Arc Furnace
Thermodynamic Considerations
Carbon Content of Ferrochromium
Silicon Content of High-Carbon Ferrochromium
Phosphorous Content of High-Carbon Ferrochromium
Kinetic and Mechanism Considerations
Upper Furnace Zone 1 Loose Charge
Lower Furnace Zones 2-6
New Trends in Smelting Technology
The Outokumpu Process
The Showa-Denko Process
The CODIR Process for Chromite Fines
Reduction of Manganese Oxides and Production of Manganese Alloys
Manganese-Oxygen System
Reduction of Manganese Oxides with Carbon Monoxide, Hydrogen, and Carbon
Reduction of Mixed Oxides and Minerals Containing Manganese Oxides
Reduction of Manganese Oxides by Silicon
Reduction of Manganese Oxide by Aluminum
Production of Manganese-containing Ferroalloys
Production of Ferromanganese in Electric Arc Furnaces
Design and Operation of Electric furnaces
Raw Materials Required for the Manufacture of High-Carbon Ferromanganese
Chemistry of the Process
Discard Slag Practice
High-Slag Practice
Production of Silicomanganese
Raw Materials
Chemistry of the Process
Operation of the Furnace
Production of Medium-Carbon Ferromanganese
Production of Medium-Carbon Ferromanganese by Oxygen refining of High-Carbon Ferromanganese
Silicothermic Production of Medium-Carbon Ferromanganese
Production of LC Ferromanganese
Gas Cleaning
Developments and Future Trends
Energy Saving Measures
Use of Plasma Furnaces
Production of Silicon Alloys
Raw Materials
Fundamental Aspects
Acknowledgments
References
Non-Ferrous Process Principles and Production Technologies
Copper Production
Principles of Copper Production
Ellingham Diagram for Sulfides
High-Temperature Predominance-Area Diagrams
Constant Temperature
Variable Temperature Predominance-Area Diagrams
Combined Cu-S-O and Fe-S-O Systems
Three Possible Paths from Chalcopyrite to Liquid Metal
Dead Roasting and Reduction
Matte Smelting and Converting
Direct Oxidation to Metal
Matte Smelting and Converting Steps
Disposal of SO2 and Acidmaking
Slags Used in Copper Smelting
FeO-Fe2O3-SiO2 Slags
Silica-Free Slags Using CaO Flux
FeO-CaO-SiO2 Slags
Minor Element Behavior
Distribution Between Matte and Slag
Volatilization During Matte Smelting and Converting
Distribution Between White Metal and Copper
Rate Processes
Intrinsic Oxidation Kinetics of Chalcopyrite Particles
Decomposition of Chalcopyrite
Ignition and Combustion of Chalcopyrite Concentrate Particles
Rates of Oxidation Reactions
Laminar-Flow Reactor
Flash-Smelting Reactor
Copper Loss by Volatilization
Particle Temperature
Melting of Particles
Combustion of Chalcopyrite in a Laminar-Flow Reactor
Combustion of Chalcopyrite Particles in a Flash Smelter
Kinetics of Minor Element Volatilization During Copper Matte Converting
Desulfurization Rate
Volatilization of Minor Elements
Partial Pressure of Minor Elements
Volatilization Rate of Minor Elements
Comparison of Calculated and Measured Volatilization Rates
Rate-Controlling Step of the Volatilization Rate
Combined Reaction and Fluid Flow Modeling and Computer Simulation
Industrial Technologies for Copper Production
Matte Smelting Processes
Converting Processes
Mitsubishi Continuous Copper Smelting Process
Slag Cleaning
Industry Trends
Refractories in Copper Production
Introduction
Refractory Types for Copper Furnaces
Magnesia-Chrome
Other Refractories
Refractory Properties
Impregnation and Preinfiltration
Refractory Degradation Mechanisms in Copper Furnaces
Complexity of Chemical, Thermal, and Mechanical Impact
Chemical Degradation
Melt Infiltration [107,109,111,112]
SO2 Gas Diffusion from the Matte [107,109,112]
Redox Effect and Reduction by Varying or Low Oxygen Partial Pressure [107,109]
Hydration [107,109,112]
Carbon Bursting [107]
Forsterite Bursting [114]
Copper Oxide Bursting [112]
References
Nickel and Cobalt Production
Synopsis
Occurrences
Extraction of Nickel and Cobalt from Laterite Ores
Laterite Ore Upgrading
Ferronickel Production from Garnierite Ores
Dewatering
Calcination/Reduction
Ferronickel Smelting
Nickel Production from Matte Produced from Garnierite Ore
Extraction Methods for Goethite Ore
High-Temperature Leaching
Solution Purification and Strengthening
Reduction Roast/Leach Process Caron Process
Extraction of Nickel and Cobalt from Sulfide Ores
Concentration of Minerals by Comminution and Flotation
Roasting and Electric Furnace Smelting
Flash Furnace Smelting
Converting
Production of Nickel and Cobalt from Sulfide Intermediates
Releaching
Chlorine Leaching
Air-Ammonia Leaching
Oxygen-Sulfuric Acid Leaching
Solution Purification
Chloride Solvent Extraction
Sulfate Solvent Extraction
Electrowinning
Nickel Electrowinning
Cobalt Electrowinning
Hydrogen Reduction
Hydrogen Reduction of Nickel
Hydrogen Reduction of Cobalt
Electrorefining of Matte and Impure Anodes
Electrorefining Matte Anodes
Electrorefining of Impure Nickel
Carbonyl Refining
Ambient Pressure Carbonyl Refining
High-Pressure Carbonyl Refining
Cobalt from Central African Copper-Cobalt Ores
Recovering Nickel and Cobalt from End-of-Use Scrap
Summary
References
Lead and Zinc Production
Lead Production
Principles of Lead Production
Ellingham Diagram
High-Temperature Predominance-Area Diagrams Phase Stability Diagrams
Chemical and Phase Equilibrium Relevant to Lead Production
Paths from Galena to Primary Lead
Sinter Plant-Blast Furnace
Direct Smelting Reduction
Roast Reaction
Chemical Reactions in Lead Smelting
Oxidation
Reduction
Decomposition
Roast Reactions
Slags Used in Lead Production
Secondary Lead Production
Refining of Lead
Industrial Technologies for Lead Production
Sinter Plant-Blast Furnace
Sintering Process
Lead Blast Furnace
Direct Smelting-Reduction Processes
The KIVCET Process
The QSL Process
Other Direct Smelting-Reduction Technologies
Roast Reaction Process the Boliden Electric Furnace Process
Secondary Production Technologies
Reverberatory Furnace
Secondary Blast Furnace
Rotary Kiln
Short Rotary Furnace
Electric Arc Furnace
Industry Trends in Lead Production
Zinc Production
Principles of Zinc Production
Industrial Technologies for Zinc Production
Retort Process
Imperial Smelting Process
Industry Trends in Zinc Production
References
Process Modeling in Non-Ferrous Metallurgy
General Approach to Process Modeling
Thermodynamic Equilibrium Process Modeling
Modeling of Minor-Element Behavior in Bath Smelting of Sulfide Minerals
Steady-State Operations
Unsteady-State Operations
Slagmaking Stage
Coppermaking Stage
Thermodynamic Data
Example 1. Minor-Element Behavior in Copper Matte Smelting and Converting with the Use of Tonnage Oxygen
Example 1-1. Matte Smelting Process
Lead
Zinc
Bismuth
Antimony
Arsenic
Example 1-2. Converting
Example 1-3. Overall Coppermaking Process
Example 1-4. Comparison of Predicted Results with Commercial Data
Example 1-5. Summary
Example 2. Thermodynamic Modeling of Minor-Element Behavior in In-Bath Copper Matte Smelting and Converting with Calcium F ...
Example 2-1. Minor-Element Behavior
Lead
Bismuth
Antimony
Arsenic
Example 2-2. Comparison of Observed and Predicted Data
Example 2-3. Overall Elimination
Example 2-4. Slagging of Sb and As
Example 2-5. Summary
Example 3. Volatilization and Slagging of Lead in Copper Matte Converting
Example 3-1. Slag Tapping
Example 3-2. Predictions Compared with Commercial Data
Combined Equilibrium and Fluid Flow Modeling
Reaction Rate and Variation of Gas and Particle Temperature
Volatilization of Minor Elements
Chemical Reactions
Minor-Element Behavior during Flash Smelting of Chalcopyrite
Minor-Element Behavior during Flash Converting of Copper Matte
Reaction Engineering Models
Fluid-Solid Reactions Involving an Initially Nonporous Solid Producing a Porous Product Layer the Shrinking-Cor...
Fluid-Solid Reactions Involving a Porous Solid
The Grain Model
Sohns Law of Additive Reaction Times
Example A. Porous Solids in Which the Reaction of the Solid Follows the Nucleation-and-Growth Kinetics
Example B. Fluid-Solid Reactions Under Varying Temperature and Concentration
Example C. Application to Liquid-Solid Reactions
Example D. The Grain-Pellet System with Intragrain Diffusion Effect
Example E. Fluid-Solid Reactions in Porous Pellets with Changing Effective Diffusivity
Effect of σ2 on the Fractional Conversion
Effect of δ on the Fractional Conversion
Example F. The Reaction of a Porous Solid with a Gas Accompanied by a Volume Change in the Gas Phase
Effect of Chemical Equilibrium on Fluid-Solid Reaction Kinetics and the Falsification of Activation Energy
Complex Fluid-Solid Reactions
Solid-Solid Reactions Proceedings through Gaseous Intermediates with a Net Production of Gases
Solid-Solid Reactions Proceeding Through Gaseous Intermediates with No Net Production Gas
Successive Gas-Solid Reactions in Which the Reactant Gas Reacts with the First Solid, Producing an Intermediate Gas Which ...
Staged Reaction of a Solid with a Gas in Which the Solid Forms a Series of Thermodynamically Stable Intermediate Phases
Simultaneous Reactions Between Solid Reactants and Fluids
Modeling of Unit Processes
Flash Smelting Process
Fluidized-Bed Reactors for Fluid-Solid Reactions
Bottom-Gas-Injected Solvent Extraction Process
Solution Mining Process
References
Aluminum Production
Hydrometallurgy of the Bayer process
Impact of Different Bauxites on the Bayer Process
Bayer Process
Crushing, Mixing, and Desilication
Digestion
Clarification
Precipitation
Calcination
Alumina Properties
Electrometallurgy of Aluminum
Introduction
Electrolyte Composition and Liquidus Temperature
Dissociation of Cryolite
Liquidus Temperature of Cryolite
Dissolution of Alumina in Cryolitic Bath
Alumina Dissolution Mechanism
The Industrial Production of Aluminum
Faradays Law and Aluminum Production
Current Efficiency-Aluminum Back Reaction
Industrial Cell Design
Magnetohydrodynamics
ACD and Cell Voltage
Alumina Feeding
Changing Anodes
Metal Tapping
Cathode Lining
Electrode Reactions for Aluminum Electrodes
Anode Reactions
Electrochemical Production of Carbon Dioxide
Parallel Reactions at the Anode
Electrochemical Production of Carbon Monoxide
Production of Carbon Monoxide by the Boudouard Reaction
Electrochemical Production of Perfluorocarbons
Anode Effects
Cell Gas Composition During Anode Effects
Anode Effect Termination
Formation of COF2
PFC Emission Rates
Cathode Reactions
Cathode Parallel Reactions
Production of Sodium at the Cathode
Production of Other Metals at the Cathode
Production of Alkali Metal at the Cathode
Thermodynamics for Aluminum Electrolysis
Standard-State Gibbs Free Energy
Reversible Decomposition Potential, Nernst Voltage
Change in Enthalpy
Energy Efficiency of Aluminum Cells
Cell Voltage Components
Electrode Polarization
Polarization Voltage
Back EMF Nonohmic Voltage
Cell Pseudoresistance and Cell Voltage Control
Gas Bubbles
Aluminum Cell Overvoltages
Environmental Issues
The Development of Inert Anodes
Aluminum Casting
Aluminum Recycling
Aluminum Materials Recycled
Scrap
Major Classifications by Alloy Family
Sources and Material Flow
References
Silicon Production
Introduction
Silicon Metal Preparation and Applications
Purification of Metallurgical Grade Silicon
Polycrystalline Silicon Definition and Use
High-Purity Polycrystalline Silicon
Semiconductor Applications
PV Applications
Polysilicon Production Processes
TCS Synthesis
Direct Chlorination Process
Background and History
Process Chemistry
FBR Design
Hydrogenation Process
Background and History
Process Chemistry
FBR Design
TCS Purification
Deposition of Polycrystalline Silicon from TCS
CVD Process, Rod-Form Polysilicon
CVD Reactor Design
Process Chemistry
Polysilicon Products
CVD Process, Granular Form
Recycle of Coproduct Gases
Conversion of STC to TCS
Thermal Conversion
Hydrogenation Conversion
Silane Synthesis
TCS to Silane
Silicon Tetrafluoride to Silane
Metal Salt Processes
Silane Deposition Processes
CVD, Thin Films
CVD, Rod-Form Polysilicon
CVD, Granular-Form Polysilicon
CVD, Free-Space Reactor
Other Deposition Processes
DCS CVD Process
STC CVD Process
Conclusions and Future Trends
Relevant Websites
References
Hydrometallurgical Processing
Introduction to Hydrometallurgical Processing
Fundamentals of Hydrometallurgy
Electrochemical Fundamentals
Kinetics
Application of Hydrometallurgical Fundamentals
Extraction
Concentration/Purification
Recovery
Gold Processing
Gold Extraction
Concentration/Purification of Gold in Solution
Activated Carbon
Carbon-in-Column
Carbon-in-Pulp
Carbon-in-Leach
Carbon Stripping or Elution
Carbon Regeneration
Gold Ion Exchange Resin
Gold Solvent Extractants
Gold Recovery
Electrochemical Fundamentals
Electrowinning
Gold Cementation
Gold Refining
Related Processes
Cyanide Recovery and Detoxification
Cyanide Recovery
Cyanide Destruction
Copper Processing
Copper Ore Leaching
Copper Ore Heap leaching
Copper Ore Leaching by Ore Type
Copper SX
Copper Electrowinning
Zinc Processing
Zinc Oxide Leaching
Zinc Solution Purification
Zinc Electrowinning
Glossary
References
Biohydrometallurgy
Introduction
Growth, Metabolism, and Kinetics
Microbial Oxidation Kinetics
Environmental Factors
Microbial Population Analysis
Mineral Degradation/Metal Extraction
Summary of Biohydrometallurgy Commercialization History
Commercially Oriented Processes for Biooxidation
BIOX
GEOCOAT
BioCOP
BACOX
Process and Waste Water Treatment Applications
Induced Precipitation
Biosorption Treatments
Bioconversion Treatment Processes
Mixed Removal Systems
Glossary
References
Rare Earth, Titanium Group Metals, and Reactive Metals Production
Rare Earth Metals
General Statement
Raw Materials
Outline of Rare Earth Metallurgy
Scandium
Yttrium and the Lanthanoids
Physicochemical Properties of Rare Earths
Melting Points and Boiling Points
Physical Properties That Serve as a Basis for Metallothermic Reduction
Physical Properties That Serve as a Basis for Molten Salt Electrolysis
Reduction and Refining Processes [8,16-23]
History of Research for Industrial Production
Categorization of Industrial Production Methods
Metallothermic Reduction
Reduction-Distillation Method
Reduction-Diffusion Process
Molten Salt Electrolysis
High-Purity Refining Method
Vacuum Melting
Distillation
Electrotransport [33,34]
Zone melting [35]
Electrochemical Deoxidation [36]
Titanium Group Metals Ti, Zr, and Hf
Titanium
History of Process for Titanium Metal Production
Kroll Process
Chlorination Process
Reduction and Separation Process
Other Commercialized Titanium Production Processes
Hunter Process
Iodine Process
Past Research for New Titanium Production Processes [51,53]
Zirconium
Zirconium Metal Reduction Process
Process for Separating Zirconium and Hafnium [86-88]
Hafnium
Reactive Metals
Reactive Metals-Lithium and Sodium
General Statement
Lithium [103]
Raw Materials
Smelting Process
Production of Intermediate Material Lithium Carbonate
Reduction Process Molten Salt Electrolysis
Sodium [112]
History of Industrial Production and Raw Materials
Reduction Process Molten Salt Electrolysis
Castner Process
Downs Process
Reactive Metals-Magnesium and Calcium
General Statement
Magnesium [121-125]
Raw Materials and History of Industrial Production
Smelting Process
Molten Salt Electrolysis
IG Farben process [129]
Dow process [130]
Bipolar Electrolysis [131]
Metallothermic Reduction
Pidgeon process [132-139]
Magnetherm process [121]
Calcium [140,141]
References
Platinum Group Metals Production
Introduction
Uses of PGMs [8,9]
Sources of Raw PGMs
Material Flow of PGMs
Smelting and Refining of PGMs
Recycling of PGMs
Conclusions
References
Metallurgical Production Technology
Process Concept for Scaling-Up and Plant Studies
Introduction
Physical Modeling
Buckingham π Theorem
Dimensional Analysis Based on Governing Equations
Principle of Similarity
Challenges in Scaling-Up of a Process in Process Metallurgy
Ambient Temperature Operation
High-Temperature Operation
Scaling-Up and Scaling-Down Operations in Process Metallurgy
Applications
Case Study One
Study of Blast Furnace Raceway [11]
Dimensional Analysis
Velocity Decreasing Case
Case Study Two
Development of Novel Process Solutions for Mo Additions in EAF Practice in Sweden
Current State of Mo Addition
Theoretical Aspects of MoO3 Stabilization
Approaches to the Improvement of Mo Addition
Methods Experimental Part
Materials
Thermogravimetry
Gas Chromatography
High-Temperature X-Ray Diffraction
Steel Alloying Experiments
Small-Scale Experiments in Laboratory
500-g-Scale Laboratory Experiments
Industrial Trials with 3tons Melt
Initial Materials
Charging Sequence Sequence of Operations
Industrial Trials in 70tons EAF
Results and Discussion
The Development of New Precursor for Steel Alloying with Mo
CaMoO4, MgMoO4, and Fe2MoO4 Stabilities with Respect to Evaporation and Oxidation
Fe2MoO4 Stability by TGA
CaMoO4 and MgMoO4 Stabilities
The Possibilities of CaMoO4, MgMoO4, and Fe2MoO4 In Situ Formation from Industrial-Grade Materials
TGA Studies of Fe2MoO4 Formation
HT-XRD Studies on CaMoO4 Formation from CaO and MoO3 Mixture
HT-XRD Studies on Fe2MoO4 Formation from Precursor Mixture
The Investigation of CaMoO4 and Fe2MoO4 Precursors Reduction Processes
Nonisothermal TGA Studies
GC Studies
Laboratory Trials on Steel Alloying from 16-g- to 500-g-Scale Experiments
16-g-Scale Laboratory Experiments
500-g-Scale Laboratory Experiments
Industrial Trials on Steel Alloying in 3tons Induction Furnace
MoO3+C+FeOx Mixture M1
MoO3+C Mixture M2
MoO3+C+CaO Mixture M3
Industrial Test in 70tons EAF
Slag Chemistry
Steel Chemistry
The Mo Yield
Summary and Conclusions
Conclusions
References
Project Technology and Management
INTRODUCTION
PROJECT IDENTIFICATION
PROJECT FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
CHOICE OF TECHNOLOGY
CHOICE OF LOCATION
COST OF PROJECT
APPRAISAL CRITERIA
SOCIAL COST?BENEFIT ANALYSIS
PLANNING, SCHEDULING,
AND RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
CHALLENGES OF A METALLURGICAL PROJECT
Kudremukh Iron Ore Company
APPENDIX A. PROJECT INVESTMENT COSTS WITH
A CLASSIFICATION
APPENDIX C. OPERATING COSTS AND REVENUE
APPENDIX D. CASH FLOW PROJECTIONS
APPENDIX E. SOURCES AND APPLICATIONS
Further reading
Metallurgical Production Plant-Energy and Environment
Planning for Energy Efficiency
Motivation
Outline of the Section
Energy Efficiency Legislative Framework
National Mission on Enhanced Energy Efficiency
Energy Conservation Act
Bureau of Energy Efficiency
PAT Mechanism
Designated Consumers
Methodology for Computing Energy Intensity
Production and Capacity Utilization
Electricity Consumption and Costs
Solid Fuels
Liquid Fuels
Gaseous Fuels
Wastes Recovered and Used as Fuels
Other Fuel Types
Energy Used in Process Heating
Data Validation
Baseline SEC Computation in Steel Plants
Variations in Steel Plant Operating Conditions
Normalized Baseline SEC for Steel Plants
Operations Diversity in Integrated Steel Plants
Operations Diversity in DRI-Based Steel Plants
Energy Efficiency Measures in Steel Plants
Baseline SEC Computation in Cement Plants
Variations in Cement Plant Operating Conditions
Normalized Baseline SEC
Operations Diversity in Cement Plants
Energy Efficiency Measures in Cement Plants
Barriers and Challenges in Plant Operations and Performance
Iron and Steel Industry
Scrap Utilization
Fly Ash Consumption
Slag Consumption
Use of Alternative Fuels in Blast Furnace
Availability and Quality of Iron Ore
Availability and Quality of Coal
Corporate Responsibility for Environmental Protection in Steel Industry
Environmental Pollution Norms
Summary
Cement Industry
Fly Ash Consumption
Slag Consumption
Industrial Waste Usage
Corporate Responsibility for Environmental Protection in Cement Industry
Interstate Transportation of Hazardous Waste
Use of Cement Kilns for Hazardous Waste Incineration
Shortage of Raw Material and Substitutes
Availability of Coal
Factors Attributed to High Retail Cost of Indian Cement
Environmental Pollution Norms
Acknowledgments
References
Intellectual Property Rights and the Technology Transfer Process
Introduction
Intellectual Property Rights
International Framework Governing IPR
WIPO
WTO-TRIPs
Patents
Patentable Subject Matter
Exclusions from Patentability
Inventions Patentable
Criteria for Seeking Patent Protection
Novelty
Prior Disclosure of Inventions By the Inventors/Applicants
Inventive Step Nonobviousness
Utility/Industrial Applicability
Procedure for Grant of a Patent
Patent Application
Contents/Drafting of the Application
Unity of Invention
Best Mode of Practice/Sufficiency of Disclosure
Amount of Time Required for Patent Grant
Term of a Patent
International Filing
The PCT
Prior Art Search
Types of Patent Searches
Patentability/Novelty Searches
Invalidity/Validity Searches
Freedom-to-Operate-Search
Design-Around Searches
Patent Mapping/Patent Landscape Studies
Methods of Patent Search
Keyword or Concept Based Search
Patent Class Based Search
Author/Inventor Name and Assignee Name Based Search
Citation Analysis
Patent Databases
Patenting Trend in the Field of Materials and Metallurgy
Inventorship, Ownership, Compensation
Inventorship
Joint Inventors
Inventorship Versus Authorship
Ownership
Joint Ownership
Employees and their Inventions
Compensation
Technology Transfer and Commercialization of Patents
IP Management
Legal Management: The Most Important Aspect is Timely Protection of the Invention as it is the Crux and the Most Essential ...
Business Management which Includes Commercialization and Marketing Strategies
Technology Transfer in Universities and Public Funded R&D Centers
Expectations from University TTOs
A Brief Note on Valuation and Possible Routes of Income
Royalties
The Cost/Expenditure Approach
The Market Approach
The Income Approach
Technology Transfer in Start-Ups
Roadblocks Faced By Small Firms
Commercialization Requisites for Start-Ups
Case Study 1
Materials and Electrochemical Research Corporation
Business Strategy, Patents, and Commercialization
Case Study 2
Nobel Biocare
Extraction of Rare Earths for Advanced Applications
INTRODUCTION
THE RESOURCES
Extraction of Rare Earths from Minerals
EXTRACTION OF RARE EARTHS FROM MINERALS
Rare Earth Metal Extraction Using Molten Salt Electrolysis [6,8]
Rare Earth Metal Extraction Using Metallothermic Reduction [3,6,9-16]
Melting of Rare Earth containing Alloys [3,13,19,20]
APPLICATIONS OF RARE EARTHS
Magnet Market [23]
Rare Earth Phosphor Market
Market for Ni-MH Batteries
Other Markets for Rare Earth
THE BASE RARE EARTH MARKET
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
Ferrous Metallurgical Process IndustryVisakhapatnam Steel Plant - From Conceptualization to Commissioning
INTRODUCTION
OVERVIEW
BACKGROUND
PLANT LOCATION AND PROJECT REPORT
REVISED DETAILED PROJECT REPORT: SALIENT FEATURES
Plant Capacity and Expansion Potential
Product Mix
Raw Materials
Iron Ore
Coking Coal
Steam Coal
Movement of Coal
Limestone
Dolomite
Manganese Ore
Other Materials
PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY
Coke Making
Preparation of Coal
Choice of Coke Ovens
Dry Quenching of Coke
Cooling and Condensation
Iron Making
Sintering
Blast Furnace Size
Special Features of the Blast Furnaces
Steel Making
Linz-Donawitz Process with Continuous Casting Recommended
Converter Size and Number
Selection of Casting Machine and Its Number
Rolling Mills
Light and Medium Merchant Mill Features
Wire Rod Mill features
Medium Merchant and Structural Mill Features
Universal Beam Mill features
Raw Material Handling
Manpower Requirement
Start of Construction and Formation of RINL
The Rationalized Concept
A Unique Workforce
Construction and Commissioning of the Plant
COMMISSIONING SEQUENCE FOR MAJOR UNITS OF VSP
Beyond Commissioning
Closing Remark
Environmental Aspects and the Future of Process Metallurgy
Sustainability
INTRODUCTION
Natural Resources and the Environment
Development of the Concept of Sustainability
Definitions and Interpretations of Sustainable Development
Models of Sustainability
THE LONG-TERM SUPPLY OF MINERALS AND METALS
Determinants of Supply
Crustal Resources
Crustal Rocks as a Source of Scarce Elements
Resources in Seawater
Resources on the Seabed
Conclusions
THE LONG-TERM DEMAND FOR MINERALS AND METALS
Determination of Supply
Substitution
Dematerialization
Conclusions
TOWARD ZERO WASTE
Wastes and the Waste Hierarchy
Cleaner Production
Wastes as Raw Materials
Process Reengineering
Industrial Ecology
Barriers and Drivers
TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY
The Concept of Stewardship
Stewardship Models
The ICMM and Five Winds Models
An Integrated Stewardship Model
Drivers of Stewardship
Vision 2050
REFERENCES
Energy Resources, Its Role and Use in Metallurgical Industries
INTRODUCTION
Energy Sources
Energy Role During Metal Extraction
Energy Used by Metallurgical Plants
Forms of Energy Required by Metallurgical Plants
ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT RELATIONSHIP
ENERGY USE IN STEEL PLANTS
Steel Plant Based on BF-BOF-CC Route
Forms of Energy Used
Energy Use Distribution
Energy Consumption in Iron Making
Coke Making
Sinter Making
Blast Furnace Iron Making
Scope of Minimizing Energy Use
Steel Plants Based on DRI-EAF-CC Route
Forms of Energy Used
Quantity of Energy Use
Energy Utilized and Wasted in DRI-Based Steel Plants
Scope of Waste Heat Recovery
Scope of Minimizing Energy Use
Steel Plants Based on SR-BOF-CC Route
Form and Quantity of Energy Need
Distribution of Energy Use
Energy Utilized and Wasted in COREX-Based Steel Plants
Scrap Remelting EAF-CC Steel Plants
Form of Energy Used
Quantity of Energy Use
Type of Feed
Proportion of Feed
Additional Energy Source
Moisture in the Charge
Slag and Flux Quantity
Number of Charges
Tapping Temperature
Delay Between Two Heats
Scope of Waste Heat Recovery
Scope of Minimizing Energy Use
ENERGY USE IN ALUMINUM PLANTS
Primary Aluminum Industries
Forms of Energy Need
Quantity of Energy Use
Distribution of Energy Consumption in the Aluminum Plant
Scope of Minimizing Energy Use
Improvements in Operating Practices
Alternative Methods
Secondary Aluminum Industries Recycling of Scrap
POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEMS CAUSED
BY ENERGY USE
Short Term Solutions on SOS Basis
Long-Term Solutions on Diagnostic Basis
ALTERNATE ENERGY SOURCES FOR METALLURGICAL USE
Hydrogen
Biomass
Merits and Limitations of Biomass as Energy Source
Scope of Biomass Use for Metallurgical Applications
Available Technology for Using Biomass
Blast Furnace
DRI Technology
SR Technology
CONCLUSIONS
LIST OF RELEVANT WEBSITES
REFERENCES
Methods to Evaluate Environmental Aspects of Materials
Life Cycle Assessment and Related Methodologies
Introduction to LCA
Introduction
Explaining LCA Using a Simple Example
A Formal Definition of LCA
Impact Categories
Examples of LCA of Common Materials
The Future of LCA
Rebound and Perverse Effects
Recycling and LCA
Dynamic LCA
Beyond LCA
Conclusions on LCA
Material Flow Analysis
The Concept of Material Flow Analysis
Approaches to MFA
Static Approach
Dynamic Approach
Material Stock
The Bottom-Up Approach
Top-Down Approach
Recent Progresses in MFA Case Studies
Future Demand Prediction
Metal Recycling
Minor Metals
References
Processes for Recycling
Metals from Slag
An Outline of Recovery of Metals from Slag
Ironmaking and Steelmaking Slags
Pyrometallurgical Slags
Recovery of Titanium from Titanium-Rich Slag
Conventional Kroll Process
Electrochemical Routes
Combination of Carbothermic Reduction and Electrochemical Process
Recovery of Metals from Stainless Steel Refining Slag
Recovery of Metals from Copper Extraction Slag
The Current Practice for Recycling Smelting and Converter Slags
Recovery of Metals from Slags with Pyrometallurgical Process
Recovery of Metals from Slags with Hydrometallurgical Process
Recovery of Metals from Slags with Biohydrometallurgical Process
Retention of Metals and Metals Recovery
Introduction
Retention of Metals
Retention of Iron from Steel Production Process
The Necessity
Slag Volume Minimization in BOF Practice
Optimization of BOF Slag Composition
Retention of Chromium in AOD Process for Stainless Steel Production
The Origin and Route for Chromium Retention in AOD Process
The Analysis of the AOD Process?Thermodynamic Aspect
The Analysis of the AOD Process?Kinetics and Operation Optimization
Metals Recovery
A General View of Zinc Recovery Technologies
Electrically Aided Caustic Leaching
Selected Chlorination and Evaporation
The Selection of Technical Approaches
Ironmaking and Steelmaking Slags
Generation of Slags
Refining of Impurities in Hot Metal and Molten Steel
Refining by Multiphase Fluxes
Recycling of Slags
Ironmaking and Steelmaking Dusts
Generation of Dusts
Processes
Iron-Rich Dust
Kawasaki Process [147]
SL/RN Process [147]
SDR Process [147]
SPM Process [147,150]
FASTMET Process [147,151,152]
INMETCO Process [147,153]
Hi-QIP Process [154]
Stainless Steel Dust
ScanDust Process [147]
STAR Process [147,155-157]
Zinc-Bearing Dust
Electrothermal Distillation Process [147,149,158,159]
Waelz Kiln Process [147,149]
MF Process [147,149]
DSM Process [147]
Z-STAR Process [147,160-163]
References
Control of CO2 Emission
Background and Challenges Toward a Low-Carbon Sintering Process of Iron Ores
Introduction
Reaction of Agglomeration Agents in the Sintering Process
Updated Technologies for the Reduction of CO2 Emissions from the Iron-ore Sintering Process
Utilization Technologies of Materials Containing Metallic Iron and/or Lower Oxides of Iron
Injection Process of Hydrocarbon Gases to the Sintering Bed [2]
Property Modification of Iron Ores Using Blast Furnace Gas [20]
Replacement of Coke by Biomass Char [21]
Summary
BF Process
BF Operation for CO2 Emission and Increased Steel Demand
Agenda for the Demand and Supply of Iron Ore and Coal
Low Reducing Agent and Low-Carbon Operation
Present Status of Development of Low-Carbon Operation and Energy Saving
Diversification of Reducing Agent
Numerical Simulation?Modeling of BF and Process Integration
Research Topics for Low-Carbon BF Operation
Future Steelmaking Process
``COURSE50´´?CO2 Ultimate Reduction in Steelmaking Process by Innovative Technology for Cool Earth 50: CO2 Emiss...
Introduction
Progress in Hydrogen Reduction Part
Progress in Carbon Capture Part
Conclusions
From Nonferrous Flash Smelting to Flash Ironmaking: Development of an Ironmaking Technology with Greatly Reduced...
Introduction
Description of Technology
Kinetic Feasibility?Reduction Kinetics of Magnetite Concentrate Particles
Experimental Work
Definition of Parameters
Experimental Results and Discussion
Summary
Tests in a Bench Flash Reactor
Design of a Hydrogen/Oxygen Burner and CFD Simulation
Simulation of the Bench Flash Reactor
Flow Sheet Development and Process Simulation?Ironmaking with Reformerless Application of Natural Gas
Flow Sheet Development and Process Simulation
Material and Energy Balances
Summary
Flow Sheet Development and Process Simulation?Ironmaking with External SMR
Ironmaking Section
Steam-Methane Reforming Section
Material and Energy Balances
Summary
Flow Sheet Development and Process Simulation?Hydrogen-Based Ironmaking
Flow Sheet Development and Process Simulation
Material and Energy Balances
Summary
Economic Feasibility Analysis
Capital Cost Estimation
Operating Cost Estimation
Carbon Dioxide Emissions Credit
NPV Estimation Procedure
Results
Summary
Further Development Work
FINEX® Process?Process of Promise
Introduction
Process Description
Effect of Raw Materials in the FINEX®
Advantages of the FINEX Process
Physical Observation of the Iron ore Fines During Reduction
Continued Developments with FINEX®
Acknowledgments To Section 4.5.2
Glossary Used In Section 4.5.2
References
Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
Y
Z