Tools and Techniques in Radiation Biophysics

✍ Scribed by Ashima Pathak

• Publisher: Springer
• Year: 2023
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 329
• Category: Library

✦ Table of Contents

Preface
Acknowledgements
About the Book
Contents
About the Author
List of Abbreviations
Historical Perspectives of Radiation
1 Radiobiology
2 Invention of X-rays
3 Discovery of Becquerel
4 Curies’ Contribution
5 Rutherford Experiment
6 Thomson’s Experiment
7 Chadwick’s Discovery
Further Reading
Atomic and Nuclear Structure
1 Atom
1.1 Electron
1.2 Proton
1.3 Neutron
1.4 Positron
1.5 Neutrino
1.6 Atomic Structure
2 Nuclides
2.1 Isotope
2.2 Isotones
2.3 Isobars
3 Nuclear Structure
4 Radionuclides
4.1 Strong Forces
4.2 Electromagnetic (em) Forces
Further Reading
Radioactivity and Its Units
1 Causes of Radioactivity
2 Categories of Radiation
2.1 Natural Radiation
2.1.1 Cosmic Radiation
2.1.2 Terrestrial Radiation
2.2 Man-Made Radiation
2.2.1 Internal Radiation
2.2.2 Medical Radiation
2.2.3 Anthropogenic Radiation
3 Classification of Radiation Based on Different Properties
3.1 Particulate Radiation
3.2 Electromagnetic Radiation
3.3 Non-ionising Radiation
3.4 Ionising Radiation
3.4.1 Directly Ionising Radiation (Charged Particles)
3.4.2 Indirectly Ionising Radiations (or Neutral Particles)
4 Classification on the Basis of their Behaviour in the Electric Field
4.1 Alpha (α) Rays
4.2 Beta (β) Particles
4.3 Gamma (γ) Rays
5 The Inverse Square Law
6 Quantity and Units
6.1 Photons
6.2 Fluence (Concentration)
6.3 Total Photons
6.4 Energy
6.5 Total Energy
7 Measurement of Radioactivity
7.1 The Radiation Source
7.1.1 Curie
7.1.2 Becquerel
7.1.3 Rutherford (Rd)
7.2 The Radiation Beam
7.2.1 Roentgen
7.2.2 Coulomb Per Kilogram (C kg−1)
7.2.3 Gram Roentgen
7.2.4 Air Kerma
7.2.5 Surface Integral Exposure
7.2.6 Dose Area Product (DAP)
8 The Absorber
8.1 Radiation Absorbed Dose
9 Gray
10 Dose Equivalent (H)
11 Roentgen Equivalent Man
12 Roentgen Equivalent Physical
13 Equivalent Dose (H)
14 Effective Dose (E)
15 Specific Gamma Ray Constant
16 Energy Unit
17 Specific Activity
Further Reading
Radioactive Decay Laws
1 Radioactive Decay
1.1 Alpha decay
1.1.1 Interaction with Other Atoms
1.2 Beta Decay
1.2.1 β− Emission or Electron Emission, or Negatron Emission
1.2.2 β+ or Positron Emission
2 Electron Capture
3 Interaction with Other Atoms
3.1 Gamma Emission or Isomeric Transition
4 Radioactive Decay Law
4.1 Decay Constant
4.2 Half-life
4.2.1 Average Life
4.2.2 Biological Half-life
4.2.3 Effective Half-life
4.2.4 Radio-Ecological Half-life
Further Reading
Interaction of Radiation with Matter
1 Interaction of Alpha Particles
2 Interaction of Beta Particles
3 Interaction of Gamma Rays
4 Photoelectric Effect
5 Compton Effect (Compton Scattering)
6 Pair Production
7 Internal Conversion
8 Linear Energy Transfer
9 Characteristic X-Rays and Auger Electrons
Further Reading
Artificial Radioactive Isotopes
1 Naturally Occurring or Primordial Radionuclides
2 Cosmogenic Radionuclides
3 Man-Made (Artificial) Radionuclides
3.1 Nuclear Reactors
3.2 Particle Accelerators
3.3 Radionuclide Generators
3.4 Nuclear Explosions
4 Pathways of Radionuclides into the Environment
5 Pathways of Radionuclides into the Human Body
Further Reading
Measurement of Radiation
1 Methods Based on the Exposure of Photographic Emulsion
1.1 Principle of Autoradiography
1.2 Isotopes Suitable for Autoradiography
1.3 Choice of Emulsion and Film
1.3.1 X-ray Film
1.3.2 Stripping Film
1.3.3 Liquid Emulsions
1.4 Autoradiographic Techniques
1.4.1 Temporary Contact Method or Apposition Autoradiography
1.4.2 Permanent Contact Method
Mounting Method
Coating Method
Stripping Film Method
1.5 Computerised Image Analysis
1.6 Practical Problems Encountered During Autoradiography
1.7 Disadvantages
1.8 Applications
1.9 Refinements in Autoradiography
1.10 Radioactive Labelling of Cells or Tissues
2 Methods Based on the Ionisation of Gases
2.1 Voltage Response Curve
2.1.1 Recombination Region
2.1.2 Ionisation Region
2.1.3 Region of Proportionality
2.1.4 Region of Limited Proportionality
2.1.5 Geiger-Muller Region
2.1.6 Region of Continuous Discharge
2.2 Dose Calibrator
2.3 Ion Survey Meter
2.4 Ionisation Chamber
2.5 Proportional Counter
2.5.1 Applications
2.6 Geiger-Muller Counter
2.6.1 GM Curve
2.6.2 Applications
Particle Detection
Gamma and X-ray Detection
Neutron Detection
Gamma Measurement: Personnel Protection and Process Control
3 Methods Based on Excitation
3.1 Scintillation Counter
3.1.1 Scintillator
Organic Scintillators
Organic Liquids
Plastic Scintillators
Inorganic Scintillators
Gaseous Scintillators
Glass Scintillation
3.1.2 Associated Electronics
Photomultiplier Tube
Preamplifier
Linear Amplifier
Pulse-Height Analyser (PHA)
Scalar and Timer
Rate Meter
3.2 Types of Scintillation Counting
3.2.1 Solid Scintillation Counting
3.2.2 Liquid Scintillation Counter
3.2.3 Scintillation Cocktail
Solvent
Fluor
Counting Efficiency
Quenching
3.3 Applications
3.3.1 Quantitative Study
3.3.2 Qualitative Study
3.3.3 Environmental Liquid Scintillation Counting
3.4 Advantages
3.5 Disadvantages
4 Semiconductor (or Solid State Detector)
4.1 Types of Semiconductor Detectors
5 Other Detectors
Further Reading
Use of Radiation in Diagnosis
1 Diagnostic Techniques
2 Diagnostic Radiopharmaceuticals
3 Nuclear Imaging
4 Emission Computed Tomography
4.1 Single Photon Emission Computerised Tomography (SPECT)
4.2 Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
Further Reading
Use of Radiation in Therapy
1 Advantages of the Use of Radioisotopes
2 Therapeutic Radiopharmaceuticals
2.1 Properties of Therapeutic Radiopharmaceuticals
3 External Radiation (or External Beam Radiation) Therapy or Teletherapy
3.1 Types of Particles Used
3.1.1 X-Rays or Photons
3.1.2 Protons
3.1.3 Electrons
3.2 Types of External Radiation Therapy
3.2.1 Three-Dimensional Conformational therapy (3-D-CRT)
3.2.2 Intensity-Modulated Radiation Therapy (IMRT)
3.2.3 Proton-Beam Therapy
3.2.4 Image-Guided Radiation Therapy (IGRT)
3.2.5 Stereostatic Radiation Therapy
3.2.6 Fast Neutron Therapy
4 Internal Radiation Therapy
4.1 Temporary Brachytherapy
4.2 High-Dose-Rate (HDR) Brachytherapy
4.3 Low-Dose-Rate Brachytherapy
4.4 Permanent Brachytherapy
4.5 Intracavity Radiation Therapy
4.6 Interstitial Radiation Therapy
4.7 Episcleral Radiation Therapy
5 Systemic Radiation Therapy
5.1 Types of Systemic Radiation Therapy
5.1.1 Radioimmunotherapy
5.1.2 Peptide Receptor Radionuclide Therapy (PRRT)
5.1.3 Novel Targeted Therapies
5.2 Intraoperative Radiation Therapy
5.2.1 Targeted Alpha Therapy (TAT)
5.2.2 Boron Neutron Capture Therapy (BNCT)
6 Objectives of Radiation Therapy
Further Reading
Use of Radiation in Cancer Therapy
1 Radiation Therapy
2 Goals of Radiation Therapy
3 Different Kinds of Radiation Therapy
3.1 External Beam Radiation Therapy
3.1.1 Types of External-Beam Radiation Therapy
3.2 Internal Radiation Therapy
3.2.1 Brachytherapy (or Radioactive Implant Treatment)
3.2.2 Radioactive Liquid Treatment
3.2.3 Intraoperative Radiation Therapy (IORT)
3.2.4 Systemic Radiation Therapy
3.2.5 Radioimmunotherapy
3.2.6 Radio Sensitisers and Radio Protectors
3.2.7 Peptide Receptor Radionuclide Therapy (PRRT)
4 Mechanism of Radiation Therapy
5 Imaging
Further Reading
Metabolic and Biological Effects of Deposited Radionuclides
1 Metabolic Effects of Radionuclides
1.1 Metabolic Pathways
1.2 Metabolic Turnover Times
1.3 Mineral Metabolism
1.4 Studies on Assimilation, Accumulation, and Translocation
1.5 Pharmacological Studies
1.6 Toxicological Studies
1.7 Analytical Applications
1.7.1 Research on Enzyme and Ligand Binding
1.7.2 Radioanalytical Methods
Isotope Dilution Analysis
Activation Analysis
Labelled Reagent Method
Radioimmunoassay (RIA)
Immunoradiometric Assay
Radiometric Dating
2 Biological Effects of Radiation
2.1 Distribution Studies
2.2 Effects of Radiation on Humans
2.3 Mechanism
Further Reading
Use of Radiation in Molecular Biology
1 Radioisotopes Used
2 Radioisotopic-Based Methods
2.1 In Situ Hybridisation
2.2 Dot Blot Assay
2.3 Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) Analysis
2.4 Single Stranded Conformational Polymorphism (SSCP)
2.5 Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP)
2.6 Mismatch Cleavage Assay
2.7 Heteroduplex Tracking Assay (HTA)
2.8 DNA Sequencing
2.9 DNA “Foot Printing” for Analysis of Protein-Nucleic Acid Interactions
2.10 Scintillation Proximity Assay (SPA)
2.11 Microarray Chip Technology
2.12 Isotope Coded Affinity Tags (ICAT)
3 Advantages of Radioisotopic Methods
3.1 Sensitivity
3.2 Cost Effectiveness
3.3 High Accuracy
3.4 Reflection of Natural Conditions
Further Reading
Other Applications of Radiations
1 Industrial Applications
1.1 Radiation Processing
1.1.1 Radiation Sterilisation of Medical Products
1.1.2 Leak Detection
1.1.3 Chemical Reactor
1.1.4 Silt Movement in Harbours
1.1.5 Movement of Pollution Offshore
1.1.6 Sludge Hygiene
1.1.7 Treatment of Flue Gases
1.1.8 Radiation in Manufacturing Process
1.1.9 Gauging
1.2 Non-Destructive Testing
1.2.1 Gamma Imaging
1.2.2 Computerised Tomography
1.2.3 Gamma Scanning
1.2.4 Industrial Tracers
1.2.5 Inspection
1.2.6 Smoke Detectors
1.2.7 Use in Mineral Analysis and Processing
1.3 Radiotracer Applications
1.3.1 Scientific Uses
1.3.2 Radiodating
2 Applications of Radioisotopes in Agriculture
2.1 Management of Insect Pests
2.2 Crop Enhancement
3 Food Processing and Preservation
4 Ecological Studies
5 Nuclear Power Plants
6 Radioisotopes and Their Applications
Further Reading
Dosimetry and Safety Issues
1 Dosimetry
1.1 Categories of Dosimetry
2 Dosimeter
2.1 Types of Dosimeter
2.1.1 Thermoluminescent Dosimeter (TLD)
2.1.2 Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) Dosimeter
2.1.3 Electronic Personal Dosimeter (EPD)
2.1.4 Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MOSFET) Dosimeter
2.1.5 Pocket Ionisation Chamber Dosimeter
2.1.6 Quartz Fibre Dosimeter (QFD)
2.1.7 Film Badge Dosimeter
2.1.8 Fricke Dosimeter
2.1.9 Direct Reading Dosimeters
2.1.10 Other Methods
3 Safety
4 Radioactive Fallout or Nuclear Fallout
5 Nuclear Power Plant Accidents
6 Radiation Exposure and Radiation Protection
7 Bioaccumulation
8 Government Regulations on Radioactive Substances
9 Basic Principles for Handling Radioactive Material in the Laboratory
10 Guidelines for Prevention of Radioactive Contamination
11 Radioactive Waste Management
11.1 Collection and Storage of Radioactive Waste
11.2 Disposal of Radioactive Waste
11.2.1 According to the Level of Activity
11.2.2 According to Form
11.2.3 According to Half-Life
11.3 Methods of Radioactive Waste Disposal
Further Reading
Glossary
Index