Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 3
Copyright Page......Page 4
Table of Contents......Page 5
Preface......Page 19
0.1 Thermodynamic Systems......Page 25
0.3 Examples of Thermodynamic Systems......Page 27
0.5 Mass Interaction......Page 29
0.7 Energy, Work, and Heat......Page 31
0.7.1 Heat and Heating Rate......Page 34
0.7.2 Work and Power......Page 36
0.8.1 Mechanical Work......Page 37
0.8.3 Electrical Work......Page 39
0.8.4 Boundary Work......Page 40
0.8.5 Flow Work......Page 42
0.8.6 Net Work Transfer......Page 43
0.9 Closure......Page 45
1.2 States......Page 58
1.3 Macroscopic vs. Microscopic Thermodynamics......Page 60
1.4 An Image Analogy......Page 61
1.5.1 Property Evaluation by State TESTcalcs......Page 62
1.5.2 Properties Related to System Size......Page 64
1.5.3 Density and Specific Volume......Page 66
1.5.5 Pressure......Page 67
1.5.6 Temperature......Page 71
1.5.7 Stored Energy......Page 73
1.5.8 Flow Energy and Enthalpy......Page 76
1.5.9 Entropy......Page 78
1.5.10 Exergy......Page 80
1.6 Property Classification......Page 81
1.7 Evaluation of Extended State......Page 82
1.8 Closure......Page 85
2.1 Balance Equations......Page 93
2.1.1 Mass Balance Equation......Page 94
2.1.2 Energy Balance Equation......Page 96
2.1.3 Entropy Balance Equation......Page 101
2.1.4 Entropy and Reversibility......Page 104
2.2 Closed-Steady Systems......Page 109
2.3.1 Heat Engine......Page 112
2.3.2 Refrigerator and Heat Pump......Page 115
2.3.3 The Carnot Cycle......Page 117
2.3.4 The Kelvin Temperature Scale......Page 121
2.4 Closure......Page 122
3.1.1 Equilibrium and LTE (Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium)......Page 137
3.1.2 The State Postulate......Page 138
3.1.3 Differential Thermodynamic Relations......Page 140
3.2 Material Models......Page 142
3.3 The SL (Solid/Liquid) Model......Page 143
3.3.2 Equations of State......Page 144
3.3.3 Model Summary: SL Model......Page 145
3.4 The PC (Phase-Change) Model......Page 147
3.4.1 A New Pair of Properties—Qualities x and y......Page 148
3.4.2 Numerical Simulation......Page 149
3.4.3 Property Diagrams......Page 150
3.4.4 Extending the Diagrams: The Solid Phase......Page 152
3.4.5 Thermodynamic Property Tables......Page 153
3.4.6 Evaluation of Phase Composition......Page 155
3.4.7 Properties of Saturated Mixture......Page 157
3.4.8 Subcooled or Compressed Liquid......Page 160
3.4.11 Model Summary—PC Model......Page 162
3.5.2 IG and PG Model Assumptions......Page 163
3.5.3 Equations of State......Page 164
3.5.4 Model Summary: PG and IG Models......Page 169
3.5.5 The RG (Real Gas) Model......Page 173
3.5.6 RG Model Assumptions......Page 174
3.5.7 Compressibility Charts......Page 175
3.5.8 Other Equations of State......Page 176
3.5.9 Model Summary: RG Model......Page 177
3.6.1 Vacuum......Page 178
3.8 Selection of a Model......Page 179
3.9 Closure......Page 181
4.1 Governing Equations and Device Efficiencies......Page 193
4.1.1 TEST and the Open-Steady TESTcalcs......Page 194
4.1.2 Energetic Efficiency......Page 195
4.1.3 Internally Reversible System......Page 196
4.1.4 Isentropic Efficiency......Page 198
4.2.1 Pipes, Ducts, or Tubes......Page 199
4.2.2 Nozzles and Diffusers......Page 202
4.2.3 Turbines......Page 207
4.2.4 Compressors, Fans, and Pumps......Page 211
4.2.5 Throttling Valves......Page 214
4.2.7 TEST and the Multi-Flow, Non-Mixing TESTcalcs......Page 216
4.2.9 TEST and the Multi-Flow, Mixing TESTcalcs......Page 218
4.3 Closure......Page 221
5.1 Unsteady Processes......Page 233
5.1.1 Closed Processes......Page 234
5.1.3 Energetic Efficiency and Reversibility......Page 235
5.1.4 Uniform Closed Processes......Page 238
5.1.6 TEST and the Non-Uniform Closed-Process TESTcalcs......Page 250
5.1.7 Open Processes......Page 254
5.1.8 TEST and Open-Process TESTcalcs......Page 256
5.2.1 Closed-Transient Systems......Page 259
5.2.2 Isolated Systems......Page 260
5.2.3 Mechanical Systems......Page 261
5.2.4 Open-Transient Systems......Page 262
5.3 Differential Processes......Page 264
5.4 Thermodynamic Cycle as a Closed Process......Page 265
5.4.2 Clausius Inequality and Entropy......Page 266
5.5 Closure......Page 267
6.1 Exergy Balance Equation......Page 277
6.1.1 Exergy, Reversible Work, and Irreversibility......Page 280
6.1.2 TESTcalcs for Exergy Analysis......Page 283
6.2 Closed-Steady Systems......Page 284
6.2.1 Exergy Analysis of Cycles......Page 285
6.3 Open-Steady Systems......Page 287
6.4 Closed Processes......Page 292
6.5 Open Processes......Page 295
6.6 Closure......Page 297
7.1 The Closed Carnot Heat Engine......Page 304
7.2 IC Engine Terminology......Page 306
7.3 Air-Standard Cycles......Page 309
7.4 Otto Cycle......Page 310
7.4.1 Cycle Analysis......Page 311
7.4.3 Fuel Consideration......Page 312
7.5 Diesel Cycle......Page 315
7.5.1 Cycle Analysis......Page 316
7.5.2 Fuel Consideration......Page 317
7.6 Dual Cycle......Page 319
7.7 Atkinson and Miller Cycles......Page 320
7.8 Stirling Cycle......Page 321
7.10 Fuels......Page 324
7.11 Closure......Page 325
8.1 The Gas Turbine......Page 333
8.2 The Air-Standard Brayton Cycle......Page 335
8.2.2 Fuel Consideration......Page 337
8.2.3 Qualitative Performance Predictions......Page 338
8.2.4 Irreversibilities in an Actual Cycle......Page 341
8.2.5 Exergy Accounting of Brayton Cycle......Page 343
8.3 Gas Turbine with Regeneration......Page 345
8.4 Gas Turbine with Reheat......Page 346
8.5 Gas Turbine with Intercooling and Reheat......Page 348
8.6 Regenerative Gas Turbine with Reheat and Intercooling......Page 349
8.7.1 The Momentum Balance Equation......Page 351
8.7.2 Jet Engine Performance......Page 353
8.7.3 Air-Standard Cycle for Turbojet Analysis......Page 356
8.9 Closure......Page 358
9.1 The Steam Power Plant......Page 369
9.2 The Rankine Cycle......Page 370
9.2.2 TEST and the Open Vapor Power Cycle TESTcalcs......Page 372
9.2.3 Qualitative Performance Predictions......Page 374
9.2.4 Parametric Study of the Rankine Cycle......Page 376
9.2.5 Irreversibilities in an Actual Cycle......Page 377
9.2.6 Exergy Accounting of Rankine Cycle......Page 379
9.3.1 Reheat Rankine Cycle......Page 380
9.3.2 Regenerative Rankine Cycle......Page 382
9.4 Cogeneration......Page 387
9.5 Binary Vapor Cycle......Page 390
9.6 Combined Cycle......Page 391
9.7 Closure......Page 393
10.1 Refrigerators and Heat Pump......Page 407
10.3 Vapor-Refrigeration Cycles......Page 408
10.3.2 Vapor Compression Cycle......Page 409
10.3.3 Analysis of an Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle......Page 410
10.3.4 Qualitative Performance Predictions......Page 411
10.3.5 Actual Vapor-Compression Cycle......Page 412
10.3.7 Exergy Accounting of Vapor Compression Cycle......Page 415
10.3.8 Refrigerant Selection......Page 417
10.3.9 Cascade Refrigeration Systems......Page 418
10.3.10 Multistage Refrigeration with Flash Chamber......Page 420
10.4 Absorption Refrigeration Cycle......Page 421
10.5.1 Reversed Brayton Cycle......Page 423
10.5.2 Linde-Hampson Cycle......Page 426
10.6 Heat Pump Systems......Page 427
10.7 Closure......Page 428
11.1.1 The Tds Relations......Page 441
11.1.2 Partial Differential Relations......Page 443
11.1.3 The Maxwell Relations......Page 445
11.1.4 The Clapeyron Equation......Page 448
11.1.5 The Clapeyron-Clausius Equation......Page 449
11.2.1 Internal Energy......Page 450
11.2.2 Enthalpy......Page 452
11.2.3 Entropy......Page 453
11.2.5 Specific Heats......Page 454
11.2.6 Joule-Thompson Coefficient......Page 457
11.3 The Real Gas (RG) Model......Page 458
11.4.1 Mixture Composition......Page 462
11.4.2 Mixture TESTcalcs......Page 464
11.4.3 PG and IG Mixture Models......Page 466
11.4.4 Mass, Energy, and Entropy Equations for IG-Mixtures......Page 470
11.4.5 Real Gas Mixture Model......Page 474
11.5 Closure......Page 476
12.1.1 Model Assumptions......Page 483
12.1.2 Saturation Processes......Page 484
12.1.3 Absolute and Relative Humidity......Page 485
12.1.5 Moist Air (Ma ) TESTcalcs......Page 486
12.1.6 More Properties of Moist Air......Page 487
12.2.1 Open-Steady Device......Page 490
12.2.2 Closed Process......Page 492
12.3 Adiabatic Saturation and Wet-Bulb Temperature......Page 493
12.4 Psychrometric Chart......Page 495
12.5.1 Simple Heating or Cooling......Page 497
12.5.2 Heating with Humidification......Page 498
12.5.3 Cooling with Dehumidification......Page 500
12.5.4 Evaporative Cooling......Page 501
12.5.5 Adiabatic Mixing......Page 503
12.5.6 Wet Cooling Tower......Page 504
12.6 Closure......Page 507
13.1 Combustion Reaction......Page 513
13.1.1 Combustion TESTcalcs......Page 514
13.1.2 Fuels......Page 516
13.1.3 Air......Page 517
13.1.4 Combustion Products......Page 520
13.3 Open-Steady Device......Page 522
13.3.1 Enthalpy of Formation......Page 524
13.3.2 Energy Analysis......Page 526
13.3.3 Entropy Analysis......Page 531
13.3.4 Exergy Analysis......Page 534
13.3.5 Isothermal Combustion—Fuel Cells......Page 539
13.3.6 Adiabatic Combustion—Power Plants......Page 540
13.4 Closed Process......Page 542
13.5 Combustion Efficiencies......Page 544
13.6 Closure......Page 546
14.1 Criteria for Equilibrium......Page 553
14.2 Equilibrium of Gas Mixtures......Page 558
14.3 Phase Equilibrium......Page 562
14.3.1 Osmotic Pressure and Desalination......Page 567
14.4 Chemical Equilibrium......Page 570
14.4.1 Equilibrium TESTcalcs......Page 573
14.4.2 Equilibrium Composition......Page 574
14.4.3 Significance of Equilibrium Constant......Page 578
14.5 Closure......Page 584
15.1 One-Dimensional Flow......Page 591
15.1.1 Static, Stagnation and Total Properties......Page 592
15.1.2 The Gas Dynamics TESTcalc......Page 593
15.2 Isentropic Flow of a Perfect Gas......Page 595
15.3 Mach Number......Page 596
15.4 Shape of an Isentropic Duct......Page 599
15.5 Isentropic Table for Perfect Gases......Page 601
15.6 Effect of Back Pressure: Converging Nozzle......Page 604
15.7 Effect of Back Pressure: Converging-Diverging Nozzle......Page 606
15.7.1 Normal Shock......Page 608
15.7.2 Normal Shock in a Nozzle......Page 611
15.8 Nozzle and Diffuser Coefficients......Page 614
15.9 Closure......Page 619
Appendix A......Page 627
Appendix B......Page 698
Answers to Key Problems......Page 704
C......Page 708
D......Page 709
E......Page 710
G......Page 711
I......Page 712
M......Page 713
O......Page 714
R......Page 715
S......Page 716
T......Page 717
W......Page 719
Z......Page 720