Cover
THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF REFERENCE
Copyright
Contents
List of Abbreviations
About the Contributors
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 SCOPE AND INTENDED AUDIENCE
1.2 OVERVIEW OF CHAPTERS
1.2.1 Part I. Foundations: referential forms and their interpretation
1.2.2 Part II. Applications and implications
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
PART I: FOUNDATIONS: REFERENTIAL FORMS AND THEIR INTERPRETATION
CHAPTER 2: REFERENCE AS A SPEECH ACT
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 ACTS OF REFERENCE AND LINGUISTIC REFERENCE
2.3 ACTS OF REFERENCE AND ILLOCUTIONARY ACTS
2.4 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 3: REFERENTIAL INTENTIONS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 MOTIVATION
3.3 FIELD GUIDE TO REFERENTIAL INTENTIONS
3.4 ANALYZING REFERENTIAL INTENTIONS
3.4.1 The form of referential intentions
3.4.2 The content of referential intentions
3.4.3 The function of referential intentions
3.5 TWO CONCERNS
3.5.1 Referential intentions and explanatory failure
3.5.2 Hyperintentionalism
3.6 CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
CHAPTER 4: JOINT REFERENCE
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 JOINT ACTION
4.3 JOINT REFERRING
4.3.1 Referential communication tasks
4.3.2 Models of referential communication
4.3.3 Some examples of successful and unsuccessful joint reference
4.4 NEGOTIATING JOINT REFERENCE TO A CATEGORY
4.5 CONCLUSIONS
CHAPTER 5: COGNITIVE STATUS AND THE FORM OF REFERRING EXPRESSIONS IN DISCOURSE
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 THE GIVENNESS HIERARCHY
5.3 INFERABLES
5.4 UNIVERSALITY OF THE GIVENNESS HIERARCHY
5.4.1 The universality of cognitive statuses
5.4.2 Correlations between cognitive status and linguistic form
5.4.2.1 Demonstratives
5.4.2.2 The indefinite article
5.5 THE GIVENNESS HIERARCHY AND NATURAL LANGUAGE DISCOURSE
5.6 THE GIVENNESS HIERARCHY AND GRICE’S MAXIM OF QUANTITY
5.6.1 Q1
5.6.2 Q2
5.7 CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
CHAPTER 6: DIFFERENT SENSES OF ‘REFERENTIAL’
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 THE GIVENNESS HIERARCHY
6.3 REFERENTIALITY AND DEFINITENESS
6.4 OVERT MARKERS OF REFERENTIALITY
6.4.1 Differential object marking
6.4.2 Referential determiners
6.4.3 Indefinite proximal demonstrative forms
6.5 THE REFERENTIAL–ATTRIBUTIVE DISTINCTION
6.6 BARE NOMINAL PHRASES
CHAPTER 7: DEFINITENESS AND FAMILIARITY
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 FAMILIARITY THEORIES OF DEFINITENESS
7.3 A BIG PROBLEM AND A PROPOSED SOLUTION
7.3.1 The problem
7.3.2 The proposed solution: accommodation
7.4 MORE PROBLEMS FOR FAMILIARITY THEORIES
7.4.1 Written versus spoken texts
7.4.2 ‘The’ versus ‘a/an’
7.4.3 Implications or assertions of non-familiarity
7.4.4 Summary and section conclusion
7.5 THE FAMILIARITY IMPLICATURE
7.5.1 Descriptions which convey familiarity
7.5.2 What contexts give rise to the familiarity implicature?
7.5.3 Explaining the familiarity implicature
7.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
CHAPTER 8: THE INDEFINITENESS OF DEFINITENESS
8.1 INTRODUCTION
8.2 CLASSICAL PROPOSALS
8.2.1 Strength
8.2.2 Uniqueness
8.2.2.1 Russell’s analysis of definite descriptions
8.2.2.2 Semantic versus referential uniqueness
8.2.2.3 Extending uniqueness to other NPs
8.2.2.3.1 PROPER NAMES
8.2.2.3.2 PRONOUNS
8.2.2.3.3 DEMONSTRATIVES
8.2.2.4 Subsection conclusion: the universals
8.2.3 Familiarity
8.2.4 Section conclusion
8.3 PRINCIPAL FILTERS
8.3.1 The proposals
8.3.1.1 Barwise and Cooper 1981
8.3.1.2 Partee 1986
8.3.1.3 Löbner 2000
8.3.2 Scope taking
8.3.2.1 Narrow scope
8.3.2.2 Wide scope
8.3.2.3 Conclusion concerning scope
8.3.3 Partitives
8.3.4 Section conclusions
8.4 CONCLUDING REMARKS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
CHAPTER 9: INDEFINITENESS AND SPECIFICITY
9.1 INTRODUSTION
9.2 LINGUISTIC MEANS TO EXPRESS SPECIFICITY
9.3 TYPES OF SPECIFICITY CONTRASTS
9.3.1 Referential contrasts
9.3.2 Scopal contrasts
9.3.3 Epistemic contrasts
9.3.4 Partitive contrasts
9.3.5 Topical contrasts
9.3.6 Contrasts in noteworthiness
9.3.7 Contrasts in discourse prominence
9.3.8 A family resemblance notion of specificity
9.4 THEORIES OF SPECIFICITY
9.4.1 Exceptional scope theories
9.4.2 Referentiality or indexicality theories
9.4.3 Familiarity theories
9.4.4 Discourse prominence theories
9.4.5 Evaluation of the theories
9.5 SUMMARY
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
CHAPTER 10: DE RE/DE DICTO
10.1 INTRODUCTION
10.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
10.2.1 Early observations and origins of terms
10.2.2 The modern distinction
10.2.3 Basics of a scope theory
10.3 EMPIRICAL PHENOMENA
10.3.1 Affected expressions and linguistic environments
10.4 FURTHER COMPLICATIONS
10.4.1 Multiple embeddings and intermediate readings
10.4.2 Scope islands, paradoxes, and Fodor’s third reading
10.5 REFINED APPROACHES
10.5.1 Intensional variables in the object language
10.5.2 A scope theory with higher type traces
10.5.3 Split intensionality: a modern scope theory
10.5.4 Differentiating the theories—empirical and conceptual considerations
10.5.4.1 Constraints on de re readings
10.5.4.2 Complex embeddings
10.6 FURTHER ISSUES
10.6.1 More on the relation between scope and intensional status
10.6.2 de re/de dicto beyond noun phrases
10.6.3 Broader relevance
CHAPTER 11: NEGATIVE EXISTENTIALS
11.1 THE PROBLEM OF NEGATIVE EXIXTENTIALS
11.2 THE HISTORY OF DESCRIPTIONS: RUSSEL (1905, 1918, 1919)
11.3 THE PRESCRIBED ELIMINATION OD ALL GENUINE SINGULAR TERMS QUINE (1948, 1950, 1960)
11.4 DIRECT REFERENCE: KRIPKE (1970/1980)
11.4.1 The “Historical Block” view: Donnellan (1974)
11.4.2 The “No Such Proposition” view: Kripke (1973/2013)
11.4.3 The Existing Fictional Entities view:Salmon (1998/2002)
11.4.4 The Gappy Proposition view: Braun (1993, 2005)
11.5 THE PURE METALINGUISTIC DESCRIPTION VIEW: KATZ (1990, 1994)
11.6 CONCLUSION: A REACTIVE SUMMARY
CHAPTER 12: A TAXONOMY OF USES OF DEMONSTRATIVES
12.1 REFERENCE TO DISCOURSE ENTITIES
12.1.1 Deictic uses
12.1.2 Anaphoric uses
12.1.3 Uses based on private shared knowledge
12.1.4 Inferable uses
12.1.5 Indefinite-this use
12.2 REFERENCE TO KINDS AND OTHER GENERIC USES
12.2.1 Taxonomic and non-taxonomic kind-referring uses
12.2.2 Uses involving exemplars of identifiable kinds
12.2.3 Stereotypical use with proper names
12.3 PREDICATIVE USE
12.4 QUANTIFICATIONAL USES
12.4.1 Bound variable uses with explicit links
12.4.2 Bound variable uses with inferential links
12.4.3 Restrictive that uses
12.5 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 13: CONTEXTUAL INFLUENCES ON REFERENCE
13.1 INTRODUCTION
13.2 REFLEXES OF CONTEXT IN REFERENCES
13.2.1 Anaphora and familiarity presuppositions
13.2.2 Descriptive incompleteness
13.2.3 Domain restriction
13.2.4 Shifted perspective
13.2.5 Context-sensitive predicates
13.3 REFERENCE IN CONTEXT, CONTEXT IN REFERENCE
ACKLOWLEDGMENTS
PART II: IMPLICATIONS AND APPLICATIONS: PROCESSING AND ACQUISITION OF REFERENCE
CHAPTER 14: REFERENCE AND REFERRING EXPRESSIONS IN FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
14.1 INTRODUCTION
14.2 FIRST REFERRING EXPRESSIONS
14.3 FIRST STEPS IN REFERENCE
14.3.1 Argument expression
14.3.1.1 Studies on narratives
14.3.1.2 The choice of referring expressions in naturally occurring dialogues
14.3.1.3 The choice of referring expression in experimental settings
14.3.1.4 Competing referents in discourse
14.3.2 Determiners
14.3.2.1 Studies in experimental settings (narratives and other eliciting contexts)
14.3.2.2 Determiners in naturally occurring dialogues
14.3.3 To summarize
14.4 THE INFLUENCE OF DIALOGUE
14.4.1 The influence of the interlocutors’ discourse
Questions
Repetition
14.4.2 Positioning
14.4.3 Discourse genres and activities
14.4.4 To summarize
14.5 ACCOUNTING FOR THE PARADOX
14.6 APPENDIX: THE DIAREF CORPUS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
CHAPTER 15: REFERENCE RESOLUTION: A psycholinguistic perspective
15.1 INTRODUCTION
15.1.1 Cross-linguistic variation in anaphoric forms
15.1.2 On the form–function relationship: hierarchies of referring expressions
15.2 PSYCHOLINGUISTIC WORK ON THE COMPREHENSION OF OVERT ANAPHORIC FORMS
15.2.1 Topicality-related factors: subjecthood,givenness, pronominalization
15.2.2 Subjecthood and information structure
15.2.3 Subjecthood and linear order
15.2.4 Subjecthood and agentivity
15.2.5 Topic and focus
15.3 PSYCHOLINGUISTIC WORK ON THE COMPREHENSION OF NULL VERSUS OVERT ANAPHORIC FORMS
15.4 EFFECTS OF COHERENCE RELATIONS AND DISCOURSE STRUCTURE ON PRONOUN INTERPRETATION
15.4.1 Steps towards reconciling coherence-based and salience-based approaches
15.4.2 Mental representations of coherence relations
15.4.3 Coherence and perspective-taking
15.5 CONSEQUENCES OF HUMAN PROCESSING LIMITATIONS
15.5.1 Limited attentional resources
15.5.2 Processing depth
15.5.3 Cataphora versus anaphora
15.6 CONCLUSIONS, FUTURE DIRECTIONS, OPEN QUESTIONS
CHAPTER 16: ACCESSIBILITY AND REFERENCE PRODUCTION: The interplay between linguistic and non-linguistic factors
16.1 INTRODUCTION
16.2 ACCESSIBILITY AND RELATED TERMS
16.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING REFERENTIAL CHOICES
16.3.1 Effects of accessibility on the choice of referent for first mention
16.3.2 Effects of accessibility on the choice of referring expression
16.4 THE INFLUENCE OF NON-LINGUISTIC FACTORS ON THE CHOICE OF REFERRING EXPRESSION
16.5 DISSOCIATIONG THE CHOICE OF REFERENT AND THE CHOICE OF REFERRING EXPRESSION
16.6 OPEN ISSUES
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
CHAPTER 17: WHAT CAN NEUROSCIENCE TELL US ABOUT REFERENCE?
17.1 INTRODUCTION
17.2 DART VERSUS TRADITIONAL SEMANTICS
17.3 ELECTROPHYSIOLOGICAL STUDIES OF DISCOURSE UPDATES
17.4 ANAPHORIC REFERENCE
17.5 DEFINITE DESCRIPTIONS AND PRESUPPOSITION ACCOMMODATION
17.6 THE REFERENCE OF PROPER NAMES
17.7 METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
17.8 CONCLUSION
ACKNLOWLEDGMENTS
CHAPTER 18: PROCESSING ANAPHORIC RELATIONS: An electrophysiological perspective
18.1 INTRODUCTION
18.2 THE REFERENTIALLY INDUCED FRONTAL NEGATIVITY (NREF)
18.2.1 Van Berkum, Brown, and Hagoort (1999)
18.2.2 Van Berkum, Brown, Hagoort, and Zwisterlood (2003)
18.2.3 Van Berkum, Zwitserlood, Bastiaansen, Brown, and Hagoort (2004)
18.2.4 Nieuwland and Van Berkum (2006)
18.2.5 Nieuwland, Otten, and Van Berkum (2007)
18.2.6 Van Berkum, Koornneef, Otten, and Nieuwland (2007)
18.2.7 Nieuwland and Van Berkum (2008b)
18.2.8 Nieuwland (2014)
18.2.9 How different is different?
18.3 MORE RECENT STUDIES OF ANAPHORIC DEPENDENCIES
18.3.1 A direct comparison of syntactic and referentialan aphoric dependencies
18.3.2 The effect of reference form on retrieval operations
18.3.3 The processing of cataphoric relationships
18.3.3.1 Overt cataphors in English
18.3.3.2 Overt cataphors in Dutch
18.3.3.3 Null cataphors in East Asian languages
18.3.3.4 Putting it all together
18.4 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 19: COMPUTATIONAL GENERATION OF REFERRING EXPRESSIONS: An updated survey
19.1 INTRODUCTION
19.2 A VERY SHORT HISTORY OF PRE-2000 REG RESEARCH
19.2.1 First beginnings
19.2.2 Generating distinguishing descriptions
19.2.3 Discussion
19.3 EXTENDING THE COVERAGE
19.3.1 Reference to sets
19.3.2 Relational descriptions
19.3.3 Context-dependency, vagueness, and gradability
19.3.4 Degrees of salience and the generation of pronouns
19.3.5 Beyond content determination
19.3.6 Discussion
19.4 REG FRAMEWORK
19.4.1 REG using graph search
19.4.2 REG using Constraint satisfaction
19.4.3 REG using modern Knowledge Representation
19.4.4 Discussion
19.5 EVALUATING REG
19.5.1 Corpora for REG evaluation
19.5.2 Evaluation metrics
19.5.3 Discussion
19.6 OPEN ISSUES
19.7 GENERAL CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
CHAPTER 20: REFERENCE IN ROBOTICS: A givenness Hierarchy theoretic approach
20.1 INTRODUCTION
20.2 THE GIVENNESS HIERARCHY
20.3 THE GH-POWER ALGORITHM
20.3.1 The GH-POWER memory model
20.3.2 Between-structure processes
20.3.2.1 In focus
20.3.2.2 Activated entities
20.3.2.3 Familiar entities
20.3.2.4 Uniquely identifiable
20.3.2.5 Referential
20.3.2.6 Type identifiable
20.3.2.7 Complex referring expressions
20.3.3 Within-structure processes
20.3.3.1 Focus of attention and activated entities
20.3.3.2 Familiar entities and long-term memory
20.3.4 Discussion
20.4 RELATED WORK
20.5 CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
CHAPTER 21: COMPUTATIONAL MODELS OF REFERRING: Complications of information sharing
21.1 INTRODUCTION
21.2 THE CLASSIC MODEL OF REFERRING
21.2.1 Information Sharing
21.2.2 Cracks in the classic model
21.3 BREAKDOWN OF SHARED INFORMATION
21.4 CHALLENGES FROM LARGE DOMAINS
21.5 APPROXIMATIVE REFERENCES
21.6 IS REFERENCE ALL ABOUT IDENTIFICATION?
21.7 COMPUTATIONAL MODELS OF REFERRING
REFERENCES
INDEX