Systems Approaches to Managing Change: A Practical Guide
Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
Contributors
Chapter 1: Introducing Systems Approaches
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Way of the World
1.2.1 Big, Big Issues
1.2.2 Messes and Difficulties
1.2.2.1 Is It a Mess or Is It Just Difficult?
1.2.3 Traps in Conventional Thinking
1.2.4 Systems Thinking Can Help
1.2.4.1 Systems Are Social Constructs
1.2.5 Two Aspects of Systems Thinking
1.2.6 Perspectives on Systems Thinking
1.2.6.1 Perspective 1: Three Traditions of Systems Thinking (West Churchman, Peter Checkland, Werner Ulrich, Mike Jackson and Others)
1.2.6.2 Perspective 2: Systems Thinking for Situations (Mike Jackson and Bob Flood)
1.2.6.3 Perspective 3: Influences Around Systems Approaches (Ray Ison and Paul Maiteny)
1.2.6.4 Perspective 4: Groupings of Systems Thinkers (Magnus Ramage and Karen Shipp)
1.2.7 Our Own Perspective
1.2.7.1 Systems Approaches in Practice
1.2.8 Purposeful Practice
1.2.9 Five Approaches Described
1.2.9.1 System Dynamics (SD) Authored by John Morecroft
1.2.9.2 Viable Systems Model (VSM) Authored by Patrick Hoverstadt
1.2.9.3 Strategic Options Development and Analysis (SODA, with Cognitive Mapping) Authored by Fran Ackermann and Colin Eden
1.2.9.4 Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) Authored by Peter Checkland and John Poulter
1.2.9.5 Critical Systems Heuristics (CSH) Authored by Werner Ulrich and Martin Reynolds
1.2.10 Chapter Framework
References
Chapter 2: System Dynamics1
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Ways of Interpreting Situations in Business and Society
2.1.2 Event-Oriented Thinking
2.1.3 Feedback Systems Thinking
2.1.4 An Illustration of Feedback Systems Thinking
2.1.5 A Shift of Mind
2.2 Concepts and Tools of System Dynamics
2.2.1 Causal Loop Diagrams, Feedback Structure and Behaviour Through Time
2.2.1.1 Feedback Structure and the Dynamics of a Slow-to-Respond Shower
2.2.1.2 Processes in a Shower ‘System’
2.2.1.3 Simulation of a Shower and the Dynamics of Balancing Loops
2.2.2 From Events to Dynamics and Feedback Structure: Drug Related Crime
2.2.2.1 Feedback Loops in Drug Related Crime
2.2.2.2 Scope and Boundary of Factors in Drug Related Crime
2.2.2.3 An Aside: More Practice with Link Polarity and Loop Types
2.2.2.4 Purpose and Use of Causal Loop Diagrams: A Summary
2.2.2.5 Basic Tips: Picking and Naming Variables
2.2.2.6 Basic Tips: Meaning of Arrows and Link Polarity
2.2.2.7 Basic Tips: Drawing, Identifying and Naming Feedback Loops
2.2.3 Modelling to Simulate Dynamic Systems
2.2.3.1 Asset Stock Accumulation
2.2.3.2 Accumulating a ‘Stock’ of Faculty at Greenfield University
2.2.3.3 The Coordinating Network
2.2.3.4 Modelling Symbols in Use: A Closer Look at Drug Related Crime
2.2.4 Equation Formulations
2.2.4.1 Drug Related Crime
2.2.4.2 Funds Required to Satisfy Addiction
2.2.4.3 Street Price and Price Change
2.2.4.4 Allocation of Police
2.2.5 System Dynamics in Action: The Rise of Low-Cost Air Travel in Europe
2.2.5.1 easyJet: A Bright Idea, But Will It Work?
2.2.5.2 Winning Customers in a New Segment: A Process that Involves Stock Accumulation and a Reinforcing Feedback Loop
2.2.5.3 Retaliation by High-Cost Rivals: A Process That Involves Stock Accumulation and a Balancing Feedback Loop
2.2.5.4 Feedback Loops in the easyJet Model
2.2.5.5 Strategy and Simulation of Growth Scenarios
2.2.5.6 Using the Fliers Simulator to Create Your Own Scenarios
2.2.6 Excerpts from ‘Orchestras in a Complex World’
2.2.6.1 Success of Performances and Quality of Orchestra
2.2.6.2 The Importance of Brand
2.2.6.3 Attracting Musicians
2.2.6.4 Success with Fundraising
2.2.6.5 Conclusions from Orchestra Study
2.3 Summary and Conclusion: An Overview of the Modelling Process
2.3.1 Dynamic Hypothesis and Fundamental Modes of Dynamic Behaviour
2.3.2 A Spectrum of Model Fidelity
2.3.3 Growth Strategy in Low-Cost Airlines: A Small Model and a Much Larger One
2.3.4 Public Policy: A Medium-Sized Hospital Model
2.3.5 Reflections on Model Fidelity and Size
2.3.6 Required Skills of Practitioner
2.3.7 Enhancing Your Skills in Feedback Systems Thinking and System Dynamics
References
Chapter 3: The Viable System Model1
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 What Is VSM and What’s It for?
3.1.2 Overview of the Model
3.1.3 Key Concepts
3.2 The Model: Underpinning Concepts, Structure, and Use
3.2.1 Autonomy Versus Control
3.2.1.1 The Horns of the Dilemma
3.2.1.2 The Complexity Equation
3.2.1.3 Recognising Autonomy
3.2.1.4 The Resolution of the Dilemma
3.2.2 The Structure of Value Creation: System 1
3.2.2.1 Primary and Support Activities
3.2.2.2 Organisation Structure and Complexity Drivers
3.2.2.3 The Impact of Complexity Drivers
3.2.2.4 Unpacking Complexity: Diagnosis and Design
3.2.3 Maintaining Balance Between Primary Activities: System 2
3.2.3.1 Identifying Needs
3.2.3.2 Coordination Mechanisms
3.2.3.3 System 2 and the Design of Structure
3.2.4 Managing Delivery: System 3
3.2.4.1 Line Management
3.2.4.2 Common Failures in the Performance Management Structure
3.2.5 System 4 – Outside and the Future – Managing Development
3.2.5.1 Systemic Function
3.2.5.2 Managing Change
3.2.6 Strategic Balance
3.2.6.1 The Traditional Strategy Model
3.2.6.2 Strategy as an Emergent Property of Structure
3.2.6.3 Strategic Conversations
3.2.6.4 Getting the Balance
3.2.7 Identity and Governance: System 5
3.2.7.1 Defining Identity
3.2.7.2 Systemic Function of System 5
3.2.7.3 Symptoms of Failure and Pathologies
3.3 Reflections
3.3.1 Model or Methodology
3.3.2 VSM as a Source of Methodology
3.3.2.1 Different Applications
3.3.2.2 Ethics
References
Chapter 4: Strategic Options Development and Analysis
4.1 Summary
4.1.1 What Does It Look Like (Basic Characteristics/Attributes)?
4.1.2 What Is Its Significance (Why Use It)?
4.2 Strategic Options Development and Analysis (SODA): A Detailed Exploration
4.2.1 Introduction to the SODA Method
4.2.1.1 Where Has SODA Been Used?
4.2.1.2 Conceptual Background
4.2.1.3 The Theoretical Framework
4.2.1.4 The Conceptual Framework
4.2.1.5 The Method
4.2.1.6 The Technique
4.2.1.7 The Tool
4.2.2 SODA and Cognitive/Cause Mapping
4.2.2.1 Mapping: What Is It? Where Can It Be Used?
4.2.2.2 Building a Map: How a Map Is Constructed
4.2.2.3 Guidelines for Mapping
4.2.2.4 Have a Go!
4.2.2.5 Comments on the Map
4.2.2.6 Additional Coding Guidelines
4.2.2.7 Getting the Wording Right
4.2.2.8 Direction of the Arrow
4.2.2.9 Developing Practice
4.2.3 Reflections on Mapping: Some Hints and Tips
4.2.3.1 How Does Mapping Compare with Other Graphical Processes?
4.2.4 Where Has Causal Mapping Been Used?
4.2.4.1 To Elicit Representations of Individual Thinking
4.2.4.2 To Support Group Working
4.2.4.3 To Analyse Models
4.2.4.4 To Support Other Forms of Modelling
4.2.5 Analysis for Strategic Options Development and Analysis (SODA)
4.2.5.1 Identifying Goals
4.2.5.2 Identifying Issues
4.2.5.3 Carrying Out a Domain Analysis
4.2.5.4 Carrying Out a Central analysis
4.2.5.5 Carrying Out a Cluster Analysis
4.2.5.6 Carrying Out a Hierarchical Set Analysis
4.2.5.7 Finding Options
Identifying Potent Concepts
Identifying Composite Tails
Detecting Feedback Loops
Producing an Overview of the Model’s Content
4.2.5.8 Summary
4.2.6 SODA for Group Problem Structuring and Resolution
4.2.6.1 Introduction
4.2.6.2 Working Manually: Using the Oval Mapping Technique (OMT)
The Benefits of Oval Mapping
Starting an Oval Mapping Session
Running an OMT Workshop
Finishing an OMT Workshop
4.2.7 Working in a Facilitator Supported (Single User) Visual Interactive Model
4.2.7.1 Introduction to Facilitator Supported Modelling
4.2.7.2 Why Use the Software Supported Mode?
4.2.7.3 Running a Single User Workshop
4.2.7.4 Summary
4.2.8 Reflections on the Method
4.3 Developments in the Uses of SODA
4.3.1 Managing Social Processes
4.3.1.1 Increasing Social and Psychological Negotiation
4.3.1.2 Group Productivity Issues
4.3.1.3 Negotiation and Productivity: Using a Group Decision Support System (GDSS)
4.3.1.4 New and Better Researched Applications
4.3.1.5 Strategy Making
4.3.1.6 Informing Strategy Through the Development of Scenarios: One Specific Strategy Example
4.3.1.7 Multimethod Models: SD and Project Management
4.3.1.8 Cognitive Change/Negotiation
4.3.1.9 Small Steps in Application: Low Risk Projects
References
Chapter 5: Soft Systems Methodology1
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 What Can SSM Be Used for?
5.1.2 Is SSM Mature?
5.1.3 How Was SSM Created?
5.1.4 How Does SSM Differ from Other Systems Approaches?
5.2 SSM in Practice
5.2.1 Everyday Life and Problematical Situations
5.2.2 Tackling Problematical Situations
5.2.3 A Flexible Process
5.2.4 The Use of Systems Ideas
5.2.5 What Is the SSM Process?
5.2.6 The SSM Learning Cycle: Finding Out
5.2.6.1 Making Rich Pictures
5.2.6.2 Carrying Out Analysis One (The Intervention Itself)
5.2.6.3 Carrying Out Analysis Two (Social)
5.2.6.4 Carrying Out Analysis Three (Political)
5.2.7 The SSM Learning Cycle: Making Purposeful Activity Models
5.2.8 The SSM Learning Cycle: Using Models to Structure Discussion About the Situation and Its Improvement
5.2.9 The SSM Learning Cycle: Defining ‘Action to Improve’
5.2.10 The Whole SSM Learning Cycle Revisited: Seven Principles, Five Actions
5.3 Reflection
5.3.1 Craft Skills in SSM Use
5.3.2 Approaching SSM: The Mindset
References
Chapter 6: Critical Systems Heuristics1
6.1 What Is CSH?
6.2 Applying CSH
6.2.1 Two Studies in Applying CSH
6.2.1.1 NRUA-Botswana
6.2.1.2 ECOSENSUS-Guyana
6.2.2 Using CSH as an Intervention Tool: Some Basic Concepts
6.2.2.1 Systems Versus Situations
6.2.2.2 Reference Systems
6.2.3 A Core Concept of CSH: Systematic Boundary Critique
6.2.3.1 Unfolding Boundary Judgements
6.2.3.2 Questioning Boundary Judgements
6.2.4 Boundary Critique Applied to NRUA-Botswana
6.2.4.1 Ideal Mapping (Identifying the ‘Ought’)
6.2.4.2 Descriptive Mapping (The ‘Is’ Analyses)
Stage 1: Identifying Stakeholder Groups
Stage 2: Eliciting Concerns and Key Problems in Each System of Interest
6.2.4.3 Critique: ‘Ought’ and ‘Is’
6.2.4.4 Extra-discursive and Discursive Evaluation
6.2.5 Boundary Critique Applied to ECOSENSUS-Guyana2
6.2.5.1 Developing CSH Literacy
6.2.5.2 Team Building for and by Using Boundary Critique
6.2.5.3 Final Reflection
Box 6.1 An unfolding narrative of CSH
Box 6.2 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) Pilot Project
Box 6.3 Natural Resource Management Project (NRMP)
Box 6.4 Botswana Range Inventory and Monitoring Project (BRIMP)
Box 6.5 Templates for four basic applications of boundary critique (Adapted from Ulrich 2005, p. 12)
Box 6.6 Getting familiar with CSH questions
6.3 Developing CSH Skills and Significance
6.3.1 Boundary Critique and Personal Competence
6.3.2 Recognising Boundary Judgements – and Keeping Them Fluid
6.3.2.1 Systematic Iteration of Boundary Judgements
6.3.2.2 Systemic Triangulation
6.3.3 Towards a New Ethos of Professional Responsibility
6.3.3.1 “Context Matters”: Working with the Tension of System and Situation
6.3.3.2 “Deep Complementarism”: The Significance of Using CSH in Support of Other Methodologies and Methods
6.3.3.3 “Seeing the World Through the Eyes of Others”: Systems Thinking as Constructive Critique
References
Chapter 7: Epilogue: Systems Approaches and Systems Practice
7.1 Reflections
7.1.1 Taking Stock
7.1.2 Flexibility and Ongoing Development
7.1.3 Characteristics: Shared and Distinct
7.2 Practice and the Skilled Practitioner
7.2.1 Level 1 Interaction Within a Particular Methodology’s Practitioner Community
7.2.2 Level 2 Interaction Within the Wider Systems Community
7.2.3 Level 3 Interaction Between Systems and Other Communities of Practice
7.2.4 Recognising the Possibility of Entrapment
7.3 Context Always Matters
References
Index