Front Cover
Sustainable Material Solutions for Solar Energy Technologies
Copyright Page
Contents
List of contributors
Preface
I. Trends in Materials Development for Solar Energy Applications
1 Bismuth-based nanomaterials for energy applications
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Photovoltaics
1.2.1 Solar Cell Operation
1.2.2 Nanoengineering
1.2.3 Bismuth-Based Nanomaterials
1.2.3.1 Bismuth-based Perovskites and Bismuth Halides
1.2.3.2 Bismuth Chalcogenides
1.2.4 Summary
1.3 Thermoelectric devices
1.3.1 Thermoelectric Devices Operation
1.3.2 Nanoengineering
1.3.3 Bi-Based Nanomaterials
1.3.3.1 Metallic bismuth
1.3.3.2 Bi2Te3 and (Bi,Sb)2(Te,Se)3 alloys
1.3.3.3 Bi2Se3 and Bi2S3
1.3.3.4 Ternary materials
1.3.4 Summary
1.4 Batteries & Supercapacitors
1.4.1 Battery Operation
1.4.2 Supercapacitor Operation
1.4.3 Bismuth-Based Electrodes
1.4.4 Nanoengineering
1.4.5 Coating or Mixing with Conductive Materials
1.4.6 Bismuth Perovskite Supercapacitors
1.4.7 Summary
1.5 Solar-hydrogen production
1.5.1 Fundamentals of photocatalysis for hydrogen production
1.5.2 Nanoengineering
1.5.3 Bi-based nanomaterials
1.5.3.1 Bismuth chalcogenides Bi2E3 (E = S, Se, Te)
1.5.3.2 Ternary Bismuth Chalcogenides (I-Bi-VI2)
1.5.3.3 Bismuth-based composite oxides
1.5.3.3.1 Bismuth oxides
1.5.3.3.2 Bismuth Oxyhalides BiOX (X= Cl, Br, I)
1.5.3.3.3 BiMO4 (M = P, V, Nb and Ta)
1.5.3.3.4 Aurivillius oxides Bi2MO6 (M = Cr, Mo and W)
1.5.4 Summary
1.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
2 Emergent materials and concepts for solar cell applications
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Perovskite solar cells
2.2.1 Historical review
2.2.2 Solar cells
2.2.3 Stability
2.2.4 Scaling up and possibilities for commercialization
2.3 IIIβV semiconductor materials for multijunction solar cells applications
2.3.1 Historical review
2.3.2 Some basics of multijunction solar cells
2.3.3 IIIβV materials for photovoltaic applications
2.3.4 Selected examples
2.3.4.1 Bonded lattice matched structures
2.3.4.2 Inverted metamorphic lattice mismatched structures
2.3.5 Discussion
2.4 Final remarks and future perspectives
References
3 Novel dielectrics compounds grown by atomic layer deposition as sustainable materials for chalcogenides thin-films photov...
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Atomic layer deposition technique
3.2.1 Requirements for ideal precursors and atomic layer deposition signature quality
3.2.2 Commercial and research tools
3.3 Atomic layer deposition applied on chalcogenides thin films technologies
3.3.1 Absorber layers: Cu(In,Ga)Se2, Cu2ZnSnS4, and Cu2ZnSn(S,Se)4
3.3.1.1 Chalcopyrite thin films: mature level
3.3.1.2 Kesterite thin films: under development level
3.3.2 Sustainable buffer layers based on atomic layer deposition
3.3.3 Sustainable passivation layers based on atomic layer deposition
3.4 Final remarks
Acknowledgments
References
4 First principles methods for solar energy harvesting materials
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Fundamental concepts
4.2.1 Crystalline representation
4.2.2 The multielectron system
4.2.3 The variational principle
4.2.4 The universal functional of the density
4.2.5 The auxiliary Kohn-Sham system
4.3 Selected materials with solar energy harvesting implementations
4.3.1 The input file
4.3.2 A supercell of zinc oxide
4.3.3 Structural stability of FAPbI3 perovskites
4.3.4 Charge order and half metallicity of Fe3O4
4.3.5 Optimization of anatase titanium dioxide
4.3.6 A conventional and a reduced representation of mBiVO4
4.3.7 A template structure for chalcopyrite
4.4 Conclusion
References
II. Sustainable Materials for Photovoltaics
5 Introduction to photovoltaics and alternative materials for silicon in photovoltaic energy conversion
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Current status of photovoltaics
5.3 Fundamental properties of photovoltaics semiconductors
5.3.1 Crystal structure of semiconductors
5.3.2 Energy band structure
5.3.3 Density of energy states
5.3.4 Drift-motion due to the electric field
5.3.4.1 Drift velocity
5.3.4.2 Mobility of carriers
5.3.4.3 The resistivity of charge carriers
5.3.5 Diffusion-due to a concentration gradient
5.3.6 Absorption coefficient
5.4 Physics of solar cell
5.4.1 Homojunction and heterojunction structure
5.4.2 p-n junction under illumination
5.4.3 I-V equations of solar cell
5.4.3.1 Short circuit current Isc
5.4.3.2 Open circuit voltage Voc
5.4.3.3 Fill factor
5.4.3.4 Efficiency
5.5 Categories of the photovoltaic market
5.6 Commercialization of Si solar cells
5.7 Status of alternative photovoltaics materials
5.8 Thin film technology
5.9 Material selection in thin film technology
5.10 Thin film deposition techniques
5.10.1 Physical deposition
5.10.1.1 Evaporation techniques
5.10.1.1.1 Vacuum thermal evaporation
5.10.1.1.2 Electron beam evaporation
5.10.1.1.3 Laser beam evaporation/pulsed laser deposition
5.10.1.1.4 Arc evaporation
5.10.1.1.5 Molecular beam epitaxy
5.10.1.2 Sputtering techniques
5.10.2 Chemical deposition
5.10.2.1 Sol-gel technique
5.10.2.2 Chemical bath deposition
5.10.2.3 Spray pyrolysis technique
5.10.2.4 Chemical vapor deposition
5.10.2.4.1 Low pressure and atmospheric pressure chemical vapor deposition
5.10.2.4.2 Plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition
5.10.2.4.3 Hot wire chemical vapor deposition
5.10.2.4.4 Ion assisted deposition
5.11 Copper indium gallium selenide-based solar cell
5.11.1 Alkali metal postdeposition treatment on copper indium gallium selenide based solar cells
5.12 Cadmium telluride solar cells
5.13 Multijunction solar cells
5.14 Emerging solar cell technologies
5.14.1 Organic solar cells
5.14.2 Dye-sensitized solar cells
5.14.3 Perovskite solar cells
5.14.4 Quantum dot solar cells
5.15 Summary, conclusions, and outlook
Acknowledgment
References
6 An overview on ferroelectric photovoltaic materials
6.1 Overview
6.2 Ferroelectric materials
6.3 Photovoltaic effect
6.3.1 Mechanism of ferroelectric photovoltaic
6.3.2 History and current status of ferroelectric photovoltaic
6.4 Barium titanate
6.4.1 Crystal structure
6.4.2 Dielectric properties
6.4.3 Ferroelectric phenomena in BaTiO3
6.4.4 Optical properties
6.4.5 Various techniques of depositing BaTiO3 thin film
6.4.6 Potential applications of BaTiO3
6.5 Bismuth ferrite
6.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
7 Nanostructured materials for high efficiency solar cells
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Nanostructures and quantum mechanics
7.3 Quantum wells in solar cells
7.4 Quantum wires (nanowires) in solar cells
7.5 Quantum dots in solar cells
7.5.1 InAs quantum dots on GaAs
7.5.2 In(Ga)As or InAsP quantum dots on wide bandgap material barriers
7.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
8 Crystalline-silicon heterojunction solar cells with graphene incorporation
8.1 Heterojunction solar cells and graphene
8.1.1 Heterojunction solar cells
8.1.2 Graphene
8.2 Fabrication of silicon heterojunction solar cell
8.2.1 Surface patterning and surface cleaning
8.2.2 Deposition of a-silicon:H layers
8.2.3 Deposition of transparent conductive oxide
8.2.4 Metallization
8.2.5 Thermal treatment
8.3 Synthesis of graphene
8.3.1 Incorporating graphene into silicon heterojunction solar cells
8.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
9 Tin halide perovskites for efficient lead-free solar cells
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Halide perovskite solar cells: why tin?
9.2.1 Perovskite structure
9.2.2 Carrier transport and tin halide perovskite defects
9.2.3 Tin perovskite bandgap
9.2.4 Tin oxidation
9.2.5 Tin toxicity
9.3 ASnX3: a brief historical excursus
9.4 Toward efficient and stable ASnX3 PSCs
9.4.1 Additives
9.4.1.1 Tin containing additives: SnX2 and Sn
9.4.1.2 Reducing agents
9.4.2 Passivation
9.4.3 Low dimensional perovskites
9.4.4 Solvent
9.5 Conclusion
References
III. Sustainable Materials for Photocatalysis and Water Splitting
10 Photocatalysis using bismuth-based heterostructured nanomaterials for visible light harvesting
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Fundamentals of heterogeneous photocatalysis
10.2.1 Heterogeneous photocatalysis applied to environmental engineering processes
10.2.2 Factors affecting the photocatalytic process
10.2.2.1 Physical properties
10.2.2.2 (Photo)electrochemical properties
10.2.2.3 The matrix composition
10.2.3 Insights of physicochemical characterization of nanophotocatalysts
10.3 Bismuth-based heterostructures for photocatalytic applications
10.3.1 Semiconductor-semiconductor heterostructures using bismuth-based materials
10.3.2 General strategies for synthesis of bismuth-based semiconductors
10.3.2.1 Sol-gel synthesis
10.3.2.2 Hydrothermal/solvo thermal synthesis
10.3.2.3 Ball milling process
10.3.2.4 Sputtering process
10.3.3 Applications of bismuth-based heterostructures
10.3.3.1 Water treatment
10.3.3.2 Self-cleaning
10.3.3.3 Water splitting
10.4 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
11 Recent advances in 2D MXene-based heterostructured photocatalytic materials
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Synthesis of 2D-MXenes
11.2.1 Functionalization and electronic properties of MXene
11.3 Photocatalytic applications
11.3.1 H2 evolution by H2O splitting
11.3.1.1 Water splitting activity of MXenes
11.3.1.2 MXene-based heterojunctions
11.3.1.2.1 2D/2D composites
11.3.1.2.2 2D/3D composites
11.3.1.2.3 Doped MXene
11.3.1.2.4 Tertiary composite system
11.3.1.2.5 Electrochemical water splitting
11.3.2 Photocatalytic CO2 reduction to fuel
11.3.3 Environmental applications
11.3.3.1 Organic degradation
11.3.3.2 Photoreduction process
11.3.3.3 MXene for antimicrobial activity
11.4 Conclusion and future prospects
Acknowledgments
References
12 Atomic layer deposition of materials for solar water splitting
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Solar energy
12.3 Photoelectrochemical cells
12.4 Hydrogen generation from water photoelectrolysis
12.5 Materials for photoelectrode
12.6 Atomic layer deposition technique: process and equipment
12.6.1 Atomic layer deposition process
12.6.2 Atomic layer deposition reactors: types and characteristics
12.7 Final remarks
Acknowledgments
References
IV. Sustainable Materials for Thermal Energy Systems
13 Solar selective coatings and materials for high-temperature solar thermal applications
13.1 Introduction
13.1.1 Concentrated solar power: facts
13.1.2 Concentrated solar power: basics
13.2 CSP efficiency considerations: the concept of solar selectivity
13.3 State-of-the-art review of solar absorber surfaces and materials for high-temperature applications (%3e 565Β°C in air)
13.3.1 Absorber paints
13.3.2 Solar selective coatings
13.3.2.1 Intrinsic absorber
13.3.2.2 Metal-semiconductor tandem stack
13.3.2.3 Textured surface absorber
13.3.2.4 Multilayer absorber
13.3.2.5 Metal-cermet coatings
13.3.3 Volumetric receivers
13.4 Current trends and issues
13.4.1 Durability studies of solar absorbers
13.4.2 Lack of standardized characterization protocols
13.5 Roadmap for concentrated solar power absorbing surfaces and materials
13.5.1 Alternative concentrated solar power absorbing surfaces: selectively solar-transmitting coatings
13.5.2 Industrialization of high-temperature solar selective coatings
Acknowledgments
References
14 Applications of wastes based on inorganic salts as low-cost thermal energy storage materials
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Thermal energy storage
14.2.1 Sensible, latent and thermochemical heat storage
14.2.1.1 Sensible heat storage
14.2.1.2 Latent heat storage
14.2.1.3 Chemical reaction/thermochemical heat storage
14.2.2 Basic concepts for thermal energy storage materials
14.2.3 Overview of thermal energy storage system types
14.2.4 Comparison of energy storage density for different thermal energy storage materials
14.3 Overview of industrial waste studied as thermal energy storage materials
14.4 Inorganic salt-based products and wastes as low-cost materials for sustainable thermal energy storage
14.4.1 Availability and abundance of inorganic salts in Northern Chile
14.4.2 Economic analysis of inorganic salts as low-cost thermal energy storage materials
14.4.3 State-of-art of currently proposed by-products and wastes as thermal energy storage materials
14.4.3.1 Sensible heat storage materials
14.4.3.2 Latent heat storage materials
14.4.3.3 Thermochemical storage materials
14.5 Challenges for the application of waste and by-products in thermal energy storage systems
14.5.1 Proposed uses of wastes as thermal energy storage materials
14.5.2 Challenges for the application of inorganic salt-based wastes in thermal energy storage systems
14.5.3 Optimization of thermal properties of thermal energy storage materials based on inorganic salt wastes
14.5.3.1 Encapsulation of latent heat storage materials
14.5.3.2 Use of additives
14.5.3.3 Graphite, enhancing thermal conductivity
14.6 Conclusion
References
15 Nanoencapsulated phase change materials for solar thermal energy storage
15.1 Introduction
15.1.1 Selection criteria of phase change materials
15.1.2 Working principle of phase change material
15.1.3 Encapsulation in phase change materials
15.1.4 Advantages of micro or nanoencapsulation of phase change material
15.2 Brief review of the work done
15.3 Results and discussion
15.4 Applications
15.4.1 Need for phase change material-based solar air heaters
15.4.1.1 Phase change materials in solar air heaters
15.4.1.2 Construction and working principle of solar-air heating systems
15.4.1.3 Deliverables: Performance criteria for solar-air heating
15.4.2 Need for phase change material-based building materials for rural houses
15.4.2.1 Phase change materials for building applications
15.4.2.2 Deliverables: performance criteria for phase change materials for building applications
15.4.3 Need for phase change material-based textiles
15.4.3.1 Phase change materials in textiles
15.5 Challenges ahead
15.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Further reading
V. Sustainable Carbon-Based and Biomaterials for Solar Energy Applications
16 Carbon nanodot integrated solar energy devices
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Carbon nanodot integrated solar energy devices
16.2.1 Dye-sensitized solar cells
16.2.1.1 Carbon dots as sensitizer in dye-sensitized solar cells
16.2.1.2 Carbon dots modified photoanodes in dye-sensitized solar cells
16.2.1.3 Carbon dots as counter electrode in dye-sensitized solar cells
16.2.2 Quantum dot solar cells
16.2.3 Organic solar cells
16.2.4 Polymer solar cells
16.2.5 Perovskite solar cells
16.3 Summary and future aspects
Acknowledgments
References
17 Solar cell based on carbon and graphene nanomaterials
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Carbon and its derivatives
17.2.1 Fullerene
17.2.2 Carbon nanotube
17.2.3 Graphene
17.3 Solar cells based on carbon nanomaterials
17.3.1 Carbon in dye-sensitized solar
17.3.2 Carbon in organic solar cells
17.3.3 Carbon in perovskite solar cells
17.4 Challenges and prospects
References
18 Sustainable biomaterials for solar energy technologies
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Structural properties of biomaterials
18.3 Biomaterials used in biophotovoltaics
18.3.1 Living organism based solar cell systems
18.3.1.1 Algae and cyanobacteria
18.3.1.2 Plants
18.3.1.3 Bioengineered bacteria
18.3.2 Light-harvesting proteins
18.3.2.1 Green fluorescent protein
18.3.2.2 Bacteriorhodopsin
18.3.2.3 Artificial photosynthetic devices
18.3.2.4 Protein pigment complexes from Rhodopseudomonaspalustris CQV97 and Rhodobacter azotoformans R7
18.3.2.5 Peptide
18.3.3 Natural pigments
18.3.3.1 Carotenoids
18.3.3.2 Lycopene
18.3.3.3 Flavin
18.3.3.4 Xanthophylls from Hymenobacter sp. (Antarctica bacteria)
18.3.3.5 Chromatophores from Rhodospirillum rubrum S1 biological redox
18.3.3.6 Chlorophyll a derived Spirulina xanthin carotenoid in Spirulina platensis
References
19 Bioinspired solar cells: contribution of biology to light harvesting systems
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Methodologies for engineered biomimicry
19.2.1 Bioinspiration
19.2.1.1 Function
19.2.1.2 Simplicity
19.2.1.3 Dissipation
19.2.1.4 Soft matter
19.2.1.5 Scientific impact
19.2.2 Biomimetic
19.2.3 Bioreplication
19.3 Bioinspired solar cells
19.4 Bioinspired structures and organisms
19.4.1 Dyes
19.4.2 Wettability and superhydrophobic dyes
19.4.3 Organisms
19.4.3.1 Common rose butterfly
19.4.3.2 Leaf
19.4.3.3 Lotus
19.4.3.4 Firefly
19.4.3.5 Human eye
19.4.3.6 Beetle
19.4.3.7 Dipteran
19.4.3.8 Crab
19.5 Biological processes for bioinspiration
19.5.1 Photosynthesis
19.5.1.1 Artificial photosynthesis
19.5.2 Cyanobacteria
19.5.3 Bioinspired chromophores
19.6 Physics in biological systems
19.6.1 Coherence effects in biological systems
19.6.2 Excitation energy transfer
19.6.3 Charge transfer
19.7 Structures
19.7.1 Origami structures
19.7.2 Graphene
19.7.3 Multijunction solar cells
19.7.4 Perovskite solar cells
19.7.5 Silicon-based solar cell
19.7.6 Dye-sensitized solar cell technology
19.7.7 Thin film solar cell
19.8 Conclusions
References
Index
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