Preface
Contents
Editors and Contributors
1: Utilisation of Human Wastes´´ as Materials in Biomedical Engineering Application
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Types of Human Wastes and Their Potential Applications
1.2.1 Human Hair
1.2.1.1 Introduction to Human Hair
1.2.1.2 Biomedical Application of Human Hair
1.2.1.3 Advantages and Limitations of Human Hair Waste
1.2.2 Nail
1.2.2.1 Introduction to Human Nail
1.2.2.2 Biomedical Application of Human Nail Waste
1.2.2.3 Advantages and Limitations of Human Nail Waste
1.2.3 Urine
1.2.3.1 Introduction and Biomedical Application of Human Urine
1.2.3.2 Advantages and Limitations of Human Urine
1.2.4 Adipose Tissue
1.2.4.1 Introduction and Biomedical Application of Human Adipose Tissue Waste
1.2.4.2 Advantages and Limitations of Human Adipose Tissue Waste
1.2.5 Human Post-birth Waste
1.2.5.1 Introduction of Human Post-birth Waste
1.2.5.2 Biomedical Application of Human Post-birth Waste
1.2.5.3 Advantages and Limitations of Human Post-birth Waste
1.3 Bioethical, Regulatory, and Translation Issues of HumanWastes´´
1.4 Commercialisation Potential of Human ``Wastes´´ Products
1.5 Conclusion and Future Perspective
References
2: The Green Approach-Based Biomaterials for Tissue Engineering Application
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Types of Sustainable Materials Used in Tissue Engineering and Biomaterials
2.2.1 Alginate
2.2.2 Chitosan
2.2.3 Collagen
2.2.4 Gelatin
2.2.5 Hyaluronic Acid
2.2.6 Keratin
2.2.7 Elastin
2.3 How Sustainable Materials Applied in Biomedical Field
2.3.1 Musculoskeletal Tissue Engineering
2.3.2 Bone Tissue Engineering
2.3.3 Cartilage Tissue Engineering
2.3.4 Skin Tissue Engineering
2.3.5 Drug, Enzyme and Protein Delivery
2.4 The Challenges and Safety of Using Materials
2.4.1 Disease Transmission from Animal Derived Materials
2.4.2 Control of Infection
2.4.3 Scaling Up
2.5 The Future Perspective on the Uses of Sustainable Materials
References
3: Food Waste-Derived Sources: Synthesis, Properties and Applications in Biomedical Engineering
3.1 Introduction
3.2 From Food Waste to Bacterial Cellulose
3.2.1 Types of Food Waste Sources
3.2.2 Process Parameters and Properties
3.2.3 Biomedical Engineering Applications of Bacterial Cellulose
3.3 From Food Waste to Hydroxyapatite
3.3.1 Types of Food Waste Sources
3.3.2 Process Parameters and Properties
3.3.3 Biomedical Engineering Applications of Hydroxyapatite
3.4 Conclusion and Future Perspective
References
4: Malaysian Seashells Based Hydroxyapatite for Biomedical Application
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Paphia textile (lala)-Based Hydroxyapatite
4.2.1 Synthesis of HA from P. textile (lala)
4.2.2 Effect of the Synthesis pH on the Phase and Crystallographic Structures P. textile-Based HA
4.3 Corbiculacea (etok)-Based Hydroxyapatite
4.3.1 Synthesis of HA from Corbiculacea (etok)
4.3.2 Characterisation of Corbiculacea-Based HA
4.3.3 Effect of Phosphate Amount on Ca/P Molar Ratio
4.3.4 Effect of pH and Calcination Temperature
4.4 Polymesoda expansa (lokan)-Based Hydroxyapatite
4.4.1 Synthesis of HA from P. expansa (lokan)
4.4.2 Effect of the Synthesis pH on the Ca/P Molar Ratio of P. expansa-Based HA
4.5 Conclusion
References
5: Chitosan from Marine Biowaste: Current and Future Applications in Tissue Engineering
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Chitosan: Structure
5.3 Chitosan: Sources and Extraction
5.4 Marine Biowaste as Chitosan Source
5.5 Preparation of Chitosan
5.5.1 Chemical Methods
5.5.2 Enzymatic Methods
5.6 Chitosan Applications in Tissue Engineering
5.6.1 Skin Tissue Engineering
5.6.2 Cartilage and Bone Tissue Engineering
5.6.3 Cardiac Tissue Engineering
5.6.4 Vascular Tissue Engineering
5.6.5 Nerve Tissue Engineering
5.7 Future Perspectives and Conclusion
References
6: Natural Hydroxyapatite from Black Tilapia Fish Bones and Scales for Biomedical Applications
6.1 Introduction to Hydroxyapatite (HAp)
6.2 Natural Hydroxyapatite (HAp)
6.2.1 Chemical Composition: Ion/Trace Elements
6.3 Fish Bones and Scales as Hydroxyapatite Sources
6.4 Extraction and Characterization of HAp from Black Tilapia FishBones and Scales
6.4.1 Samples Preparation
6.4.2 Characterization of HAp Powders
6.4.3 Heat Treatment Technique (Calcination)
6.4.4 Outcome of Black Tilapia-Derived HAp Analysis
6.4.4.1 Characterization of HAp Powder from Fish Bone
6.4.4.1.1 Morphological Analysis
6.4.4.1.2 Chemical Composition Analysis
6.4.4.1.3 Crystallinity Analysis
6.4.4.2 Characterization of HAp Powder from Fish Scale
6.4.4.2.1 Morphological Analysis
6.4.4.2.2 Chemical Composition Analysis
6.4.4.2.3 Crystallinity Analysis
6.4.5 Biological Testing (In-Vitro)
6.4.5.1 Sample Preparation
6.4.5.2 Bioactivity Assessment
6.4.5.3 Cell Viability Assessment
6.4.5.4 Biological Analysis for HAp Extracted from Fish Bone
6.4.5.4.1 Bioactivity Analysis
6.4.5.4.2 Cell Viability Analysis
6.4.5.5 Biological Analysis for HAp Extracted from Fish Scale
6.4.5.5.1 Bioactivity Analysis
6.4.5.5.2 Cell Viability Analysis
6.5 Conclusion
References
7: Human Amnion as a Cell Delivery Vehicle for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine Applications
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Human Amnion as a Biomaterial
7.3 Recent Advancement in Amnion Research
7.4 Human Amnion as a Sustainable Biomaterial for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine (Term) Applications
7.4.1 Dermatology
7.4.2 Orthopaedic Surgery
7.4.3 Ophthalmology
7.4.4 Cardiovascular Surgery
7.4.5 Urology
7.4.6 Dental Surgery
7.5 Conversion of a Biowaste into a Medical Device
7.6 Conclusion
References
8: Bioscaffolds and Cell Source in Cartilage Tissue Engineering
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Cell Sources for Cartilage Tissue Engineering
8.2.1 Chondrocytes from Cartilage
8.2.1.1 Articular Chondrocytes (ACs)
8.2.1.2 Nasal Septum Chondrocytes (NCs)
8.2.1.3 Auricular Chondrocytes (AuCs)
8.2.2 Progenitors
8.2.2.1 Chondroprogenitor Cells (CPs)
8.2.3 Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs)
8.2.3.1 Bone-Marrow Stem Cells (BMSCs)
8.2.3.2 Adipose-Derived Stem Cells (ADSCs)
8.2.3.3 Umbilical Cord Blood-Derived Stem Cells (UCBSCs)
8.2.3.4 Synovium-Derived Stem Cells (SDSCs)
8.3 Type of Scaffolds for Cartilage Tissue Engineering
8.3.1 Natural Polymers
8.3.1.1 Collagen
8.3.1.2 Fibrin
8.3.1.3 Alginate
8.3.1.4 Chitosan
8.3.2 Synthetic Polymers
8.3.2.1 Polylactic Acid (PLA)
8.3.2.2 Polyglycolic Acid (PGA)
8.3.2.3 Polycaprolactones (PCL)
8.3.2.4 Polyethylene Glycol (PEG)
8.3.3 Biocomposite Polymers
8.3.3.1 Gel Form Biocomposite
8.3.3.2 Multilayer Form Biocomposite
8.3.4 Medpor
8.4 Conclusion
References
9: Lipase Synthesis Using Palm Oil Mill Effluent for Polycaprolactone Production
9.1 Polycaprolactone (PCL): An Excellent Biomaterial for Biomedical Applications
9.2 Biocatalyst for Ring Opening Polymerization of Polycaprolactone
9.3 Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME) as a Fermentation Medium
9.4 Extracellular Fungal Lipase Production in POME
9.5 Bioethics and Clinical Trials
9.6 Conclusion: Cost Effective Fungal Lipase Application for Sustainable Local PCL Production
References
10: Engineered Microbial Sensing Element-Based Biosensor for Sustainable Biomedical Engineering Application
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Microbial Biosensor
10.3 Development of Microbial Based Biosensor for Medical Application
10.4 Transducer
10.4.1 Electrochemical Techniques
10.4.1.1 Principles of Microbial Electrochemical Systems (MES)
10.4.1.2 Extracellular Electron Transfer Based Biosensor
10.4.1.3 Direct Electron Transfer (DET) Via Electroactive Microbes
10.4.1.4 Mediated Electron Transfer
10.4.1.5 Bioelectrochemistry of Biofilms Based Biosensor
10.4.1.6 Microbial Fuel Cells Based Biosensor
10.4.1.7 Impact of the Electrode Materials on the Performance of MESs
10.4.2 Optical Techniques
10.4.2.1 Reporter Gene
10.4.2.2 Transcriptor
10.4.2.3 Regulatory Proteins
10.4.2.4 Host Cells
10.5 Design and Principle of Microbial-Based Biosensor
10.6 Immobilization Strategies
10.6.1 Passive Immobilization
10.6.2 Active Immobilization
10.6.3 Microfluidic/Lab on Chip Integration
10.7 Microbially-Derived Whole-Cell Based Biosensors in Medical Application
10.8 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
11: Progress in Biomedical Applications Using Sustainable Nanoparticles
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Nanoparticles
11.3 Potential Risks and Concerns Associated with Nanoparticles
11.3.1 Toxicology Properties of Nanoparticles
11.3.1.1 Size
11.3.1.2 Chemical Composition
11.3.1.3 Shape
11.4 Waste Management and Nanoparticle Environmental Impact
11.4.1 Lands and Soil
11.4.2 Aquatic Organisms
11.5 Green Synthesized Nanoparticles for Sustainability in Biomedical Application
11.5.1 Diagnostics and Imaging
11.5.2 Drug Delivery and Therapeutic
11.6 Challenges and Future Perspective of Green Synthesis Nanoparticles
11.7 Conclusion
References
12: Development of Nanomaterials from Natural Resources for Biosensing and Biomedical Technology
12.1 Introduction to Nanomaterials
12.1.1 Conventional Preparation of Nanomaterials
12.2 Green Synthesis of Nanomaterials
12.2.1 Phytochemical Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs)
12.2.2 Oil Palm-Based Nanocomposite
12.3 Biosensing
12.3.1 Nanomaterials-Based Biosensors
12.3.2 Antibody Immobilization for Immuno-Biosensor
12.4 Biomedical Applications
12.4.1 Scaffold Material for Bone Tissue Engineering
12.4.2 Wound Healing
12.4.3 Antibacterial Activity
12.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
13: 3D Bioprinted Scaffolds from Sustainable Materials for Tissue Engineering: Evolution and Current Challenges
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Principle of 3D Bioprinting
13.3 Types of 3D Bioprinting
13.3.1 Extrusion-Based Bioprinting
13.3.2 Inkjet-Based Bioprinting
13.3.3 Laser-Assisted Bioprinting
13.4 Bioprinting: A Path to a More Sustainable Economy
13.4.1 3D Bioprinting: Sustainable Materials
13.4.2 3D Bioprinting: Energy Sustainability
13.5 Development of 3D Bioprinting Associated with Sustainability Aspects
13.5.1 Evolution of Bioprinting Techniques
13.5.2 Sustainability Dimensions and Criteria in 3D Bioprinting
13.6 Current Challenges in 3D Bioprinting
13.7 Conclusion
References
14: Sustainable Biomaterials for 3D Printing
14.1 Biomaterials as Implant Materials
14.2 Alloplastic Polymeric Materials
14.3 Resorbable Polymer and Non-resorbable Polymer
14.4 Clinical Aspects of Ideal Properties in Alloplastic Materials
14.5 Patient-Specific Implants (PSI) in Craniomaxillofacial Implant Reconstruction
14.6 3D Printing
14.7 Innovations on Sustainable Alloplastic for 3D Printing
References
15: Biowaste as Candidates for Future Bone Materials
15.1 Bioceramics in Biomedical Applications
15.1.1 Relevancies of Using Ca-Based Bioceramics in Biomedical Applications
15.2 Bioceramics as Bone Materials
15.2.1 Calcium Phosphate-Based Bioceramics
15.2.2 Calcium Silicate-Based Bioceramics
15.3 From Biowaste to Bioceramics
15.4 Understanding the Potential Use of Biowaste
15.5 Transforming Biowastes to Sustainable Materials
15.6 Processing Methods
15.6.1 Extraction of Calcium from Eggshells Waste
15.6.2 Extraction of Calcium from Cockleshells Waste
15.6.3 Extraction of Calcium from Animal Bone
15.6.4 Extraction of Calcium from Dental Mould Waste
15.6.5 Extraction of Silica from Rice Husks Ash
15.7 Conclusion and Future Trends
References
16: Hybrid Bioscaffolds Formation Using Natural and Synthetic Materials for Cartilage Tissue Engineering: The Case of Fibrin, ...
16.1 Introduction
16.1.1 What Is Tissue Engineering?
16.1.2 Cartilage Tissue Engineering
16.1.3 Biomaterial Scaffold for Cartilage Tissue Engineering
16.2 Methodology
16.2.1 To Summarise Cartilage Tissue Engineering Research Using Fibrin, Atelocollagen and PLGA
16.2.2 To Summarise Clinical Trials and Applications Using Fibrin, Atelocollagen and PLGA For Cartilage Repair
16.3 Results
16.3.1 Updates on Cartilage Tissue Engineering Research Using Fibrin, Atelocollagen and PLGA
16.3.2 Updates on Clinical Trials and Applications Using Fibrin, Atelocollagen and PLGA for Cartilage Repair
16.4 Discussion
16.4.1 Progress In Articular Cartilage Tissue Engineering from Bench to Bedside
16.5 Regulatory and Bioethics Issues
16.6 Conclusion
References
17: Sustainable Design of Natural and Synthetic Biomaterials for Wound Healing Applications
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Types of Biomaterials Apply in Wound Healing Applications
17.2.1 Natural Biomaterials
17.2.1.1 Protein Based Biomaterials
17.2.1.1.1 Collagen
17.2.1.1.2 Elastin
17.2.1.1.3 Fibrin
17.2.1.1.4 Gelatin
17.2.1.1.5 Silk Fibroin
17.2.1.2 Polysaccharides-Based Biomaterials
17.2.1.2.1 Natural Polysaccharides
Cellulose
Starch, Dextran, and Pullulan
17.2.1.2.2 Basic Polysaccharides
Chitosan and Chitin
17.2.1.2.3 Sulfated Polysaccharides
17.2.1.2.4 Acid Polysaccharides
Alginate
Hyaluronic Acid
17.2.1.2.5 Synthetic Polysaccharides
Polyurethanes (PU)
Poly(Ethylene Glycol)
Polycaprolactone (PCL)
Poly Lactic Acid (PLA)
Poly(Lactic-co-Glycolic Acid) (PLGA)
17.3 Nanoparticle-Based Smart Wound Dressing for Detection and Therapy
17.3.1 Environment-Responsive Wound Dressing for Bacterial Therapy
17.3.2 Wound Dressing for Point-of-Care Detection and Therapy for Bacterial Infection
17.4 Nanoparticle Delivery of Therapeutic Drugs for Wound Healing
17.4.1 Growth Factor
17.4.2 Antibiotics
17.4.3 Nucleic Acid
17.4.4 Antioxidant
17.5 Conclusion
References
18: Polysaccharide-Based Injectable Nanocomposite Hydrogels for Wound Healing Application
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Injectable Hydrogel in Wound Healing
18.3 Synthesis of Polysaccharide-Based Injectable Nanocomposites Hydrogel for Wound Application
18.4 Characteristics of Injectable Hydrogel for Wound Application
18.4.1 Physicochemical Characteristics
18.4.1.1 Rheology
18.4.1.2 Gelation Time
18.4.1.3 Swelling Ability
18.4.1.4 Injectability
18.4.1.5 Degradability
18.4.2 Microstructure Characteristics
18.4.3 Mechanical Properties
18.4.4 Biological Characteristics
18.5 Clinical Investigation Status of Injectable Hydrogel
18.6 Regulatory Aspects of Injectable Hydrogel
18.7 Commercialisation Potential of Polysaccharide-Based Injectable Nanocomposite Hydrogel
18.8 Conclusion and Future Directions
References
19: Roles of Sustainable Biomaterials in Biomedical Engineering for Ischemic Stroke Therapy
19.1 Introduction
19.1.1 Stroke
19.1.2 Types of Stroke
19.1.2.1 Ischemic Stroke
19.1.2.2 Hemorrhagic Stroke
19.2 Biomaterial-Based Therapies for Ischemic Stroke
19.3 Major Therapeutic Roles of Sustainable Biomaterials for Ischemic Stroke Treatment
19.3.1 As a Direct Treatment for Ischemic Stroke
19.3.2 As a Delivery Agent for Targeted Delivery of Pharmacological Drugs to a Specific Area in Injured Brain
19.3.3 To Facilitate Crossing Through Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB)
19.3.4 To Control Release and Improved Half-Shelf Life of Ischemic Stroke Drugs
19.3.5 As Supporting Matrix at Ischemic Cavity to Provide Physical and Trophic Support for Post-Stroke Neurogenesis
19.3.6 To Encapsulate Cells and Confers Protection to the Cells
19.3.7 To Mimic the Physiological Environment (3D Culture) for Optimum Cell Growth
19.3.8 To Enhance Cell Homing to Cerebral Ischemic Lesion Areas
19.3.9 To Label Cells for In Vivo MRI Tracking
19.4 Conclusion
References
20: Sustainable Materials for Biomedical Engineering Application in Dentistry
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Regulatory and Bioethics Issues of the Sustainable Materials
20.3 Clinical Trials of the Sustainable Materials in Dental Application
20.3.1 Bone Regeneration
20.3.2 Dentine Pulp Regeneration
20.3.3 Periodontal Regeneration
20.4 The Sustainability, Quality, Limitations, Translational and Commercialisation Potential of the Sustainable Materials
20.4.1 Bioceramics
20.4.1.1 Natural Hydroxyapatite
20.4.2 Natural Polymers
20.4.2.1 Protein-Based Material: Collagen
20.4.2.2 Polysaccharide-Based Materials: Chitosan and Cellulose
20.5 Conclusion
References
21: Glass Ionomer Cements as Sustainable Material for Restorative Dentistry
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Synthesis of Nano-Hydroxyapatite Silica
21.3 Incorporation of Nano-Ha Silica into Glass Ionomer Cement
21.4 Glass Ionomer Cement: Outcome and Update
21.4.1 Material Characterisation
21.4.2 Mechanical Properties
21.4.3 Biocompatibility Study
21.4.4 Dentinogenic and Odontogenic Differentiation Study
21.5 Future Perspective
21.6 Conclusions
References
22: Mapping the Ethical and Regulatory Issues of 3D Bioprinting Using Biomaterials in a Low- and Middle-Income Nation: Malaysi...
22.1 Introduction
22.2 3D Bioprinting in Malaysia
22.2.1 Moral Obligation to Develop 3d Bioprinting in Malaysia
22.2.2 Prospect of 3D Bioprinting in Organ Transplant
22.2.3 Addressing Degenerative Diseases with 3D Bioprinting
22.3 Ethical Issues
22.3.1 Consent
22.3.2 Sources of Bioinks
22.3.3 Benefits Versus Risks
22.3.4 Therapeutic Versus Enhancement
22.3.5 Distributive Justice
22.4 Regulatory Issues
22.4.1 Risks Regulation and Responsibility
22.4.2 Commercialisation and Patenting
22.5 Conclusion
References
23: Ethical and Regulatory Considerations for Sustainable Practices in Biomedical Applications
23.1 Introduction
23.1.1 Overview of Sustainable Practices in Regenerative Medicine
23.1.2 Sustainable Design
23.1.2.1 Sustainable Cell Sourcing and the Associated Ethical Concerns
23.1.2.2 Sustainable Material Sourcing and the Associated Ethical Concerns
23.1.2.3 Sustainable Biochemical Factors and the Associated Ethical Concerns
23.1.2.3.1 Secretomes
23.1.2.3.2 Extracellular vesicles
23.1.2.3.3 Expired Human Platelet Lysate and Blood Components
23.1.2.3.4 Plant Extract
23.1.2.3.5 Biophysical/Biomechanical and Electromagnetic Stimulation
23.1.2.4 Sustainable Processing/Fabrication Methods and Its Associated Ethical Concerns
23.1.3 Ethics of Translation and Commercialization of Regenerative Medicine Products
23.1.3.1 Establishment of Cell and Tissue Banks and the Associated Ethical Concerns
23.1.4 Ethical Flaws of Traditional Economic Model
23.2 Regulatory Considerations for Sustainable Materials in Biomedical Applications
23.2.1 The Circular Economy
23.2.2 Waste Management
23.3 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References