Structural Geology Principles, Concepts, and Problems

✍ Scribed by Robert D. Hatcher, Christopher M. Bailey

• Publisher: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
• Year: 2020
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 657
• Edition: Third
• Category: Library

✦ Table of Contents

Cover
Structural Geology
Dedication
Brief Contents
Contents
Preface to the Third Edition
Acknowledgments
PART 1: Introduction
1: Introduction
Plate Tectonics
Equilibrium
Geologic Cycles
Chapter Highlights
Questions
Further Reading
2: Fundamental Concepts and Nontectonic Structures
Fundamental Concepts
Primary Sedimentary Structures
Bedding
Mud Cracks
Ripple Marks
Rain Imprints
Tracks and Trails
Sole Marks, Scour Marks, Flute Casts
Dewatering Structures
Fossils
Reduction Spots
Sedimentary Facies
Unconformities
Primary Igneous Structures
Gravity-Related Features
Landslides and Submarine Flows
ESSAY: Deciphering a Major Structure in the Southern Highlands of Scotland
Salt Structures
Impact Structures
Chapter Highlights
Questions
Further Reading
3: Geochronology in Structural Geology
Geochronology
Radioactivity and Isotope Geochronology
Closure Temperature
Assumptions
Radioisotopic Dating Techniques
Cosmogenic Surface Exposure Dating
The Vital Role of Geochronology in Structural Geology
Stable Isotopes
ESSAY: Rock Bodies That Appear to Be the Same in the Field May Not Turn Out to Be When Their Ages Are Determined
Chapter Highlights
Questions
Further Reading
4: Geophysical Techniques and Earth Structure
Seismic Reflection
Seismic Refraction
Earthquakes and Seismic Waves
Earthquake Waves and Whole-Earth Structure
Locating Earthquakes
Earthquake Magnitude and Intensity
Seismic Tomography
Focal Mechanisms and “Beach Balls”
Potential Field Methods
Terrestrial Magnetism
Remanent Magnetism
Magnetic Reversals
Induced Magnetism
Applications Using Magnetism
Gravity
Applications Using Gravity
Electrical Methods
Borehole Geophysics
Natural Gamma-Ray Log
ESSAY: Geophysical Data and the Structure of Mountain Chains
Electrical Logs
Photoelectric Logs
Neutron Logs
Temperature, Caliper, and Sonic Logs
Utility of Conventional Geophysical Logs—Geology from Wiggly Lines
Borehole Imaging Logs
Suspension Logging
Vertical Seismic Profiles
Chapter Highlights
Questions
Further Reading
PART 2: Mechanics: How Rocks Deform
5: Stress
Definitions
Stress on a Plane
Mohr Circle Derivation
Mohr Construction
Amontons’ Law and the Coulomb–Mohr Hypothesis
Stress Ellipsoid
Stress at a Point
Measuring Present-Day Stress in the Earth
ESSAY: The Earthquake Cycle
Chapter Highlights
Questions
Further Reading
6: Strain and Strain Measurement
Definitions
Measures of Strain
Strain Ellipse and Ellipsoid
Simple, General, and Pure Shear
ESSAY: Daubrée and Mead Experiment
Progressive Deformation, Strain Symmetry, and Strain Path
Mohr Circle for Strain
Tensor Operations for Strain
Measuring Strain in Rocks
Strain Measurement Techniques
Linear Markers
Initially Elliptical Markers
From Two to Three Dimensions
The Utility of Strain Analysis
Concluding Thoughts
ESSAY: Finite Strain from Deformed Pebbles
Chapter Highlights
Questions
Further Reading
7: Mechanical Behavior of Rock Materials
Definitions
Elastic (Hookean) Behavior
Permanent Deformation—Ductility
Viscous Behavior
Plastic (Saint-Venant) Behavior
Elasticoviscous (Maxwell) Behavior
Controlling Factors
Behavior of Crustal Rocks
Ductile-Brittle Transition
ESSAY: Jelly Sandwiches, Crème Brûlée, and the Mechanical Behavior of the Lithosphere
Strain Partitioning
Chapter Highlights
Questions
Further Reading
8: Microstructures and Deformation Mechanisms
Lattice Defects and Dislocations
Point Defects
Line Defects—Dislocations
Planar Defects—Stacking Faults
Translation (Dislocation) and Twin Gliding
Deformation Mechanisms
Cataclasis
Creep Processes
Superplastic Flow
Geochemical Processes
Mass-Transfer Processes
Factors That Influence the Rates of Chemical Reactions
Microstructures
Inclusion Trails and Deformation Lamellae
Unrecovered Strain, Recovery, and Recrystallization
Crystallographic Preferred Orientations
Laboratory Models of Deformation Processes
Final Thoughts
ESSAY: Fault Rocks—A Fourth Class of Rocks
Chapter Highlights
Questions
Further Reading
PART 3: Fractures and Faults
9: Joints and Shear Fractures
ESSAY: Fracking
Fracture Analysis
Significance of Orientation
Fracture Formation in the Present-Day Stress Field
Fold- and Fault-Related Joints
Fracture Mechanics: Griffith Theory
Joints and Fracture Mechanics
Fracture Surface Morphology
Joints in Plutons
Nontectonic and Quasitectonic Fractures
Sheeting
Columnar Joints and Mud Cracks
ESSAY: Mesozoic Fracturing of Eastern North American Crust—Product of Extension or Shear?
Chapter Highlights
Questions
Further Reading
10: Faults and Shear Zones
Fault Anatomy
Anderson’s Classification
Recognizing Faults
ESSAY: Seismic Risk Associated with Tectonic Structures
Shear Zones
Shear-Sense Indicators
Composite Foliations
Strain in Ductile Shear Zones
Brittle Shear Zones
ESSAY: Existence and Displacement Sense of Large Faults
Chapter Highlights
Questions
Further Reading
11: Fault Mechanics
Anderson’s Mechanics and Fundamental Assumptions
Anderson’s Fault Types
Type 1. Thrust Faults
Type 2. Strike-Slip Faults
Type 3. Normal Faults
Role of Fluids
Frictional Sliding Mechanisms
Movement Mechanisms
Fault Surfaces and Frictional Sliding
Shear (Frictional) Heating In Fault Zones
Reality of Fault Mechanics
ESSAY: Artificial Earthquakes
Chapter Highlights
Questions
Further Reading
12: Thrust Faults
Nature of Thrust Faults
Detachment Within a Sedimentary Sequence
Propagation and Termination of Thrusts
Features Produced by Erosion
ESSAY: Debate About Thrust Faults
Crystalline Thrusts
ESSAY: Gravity Model Foldbelt
Cross-Section Construction and the Room Problem
Thrust Mechanics
Mechanics of Crystalline Thrusts
Chapter Highlights
Questions
Further Reading
13: Strike-Slip Faults
Properties and Geometry
Tectonic Setting of Strike-Slip Faulting
Geometry Related to Other Fault Types
Terminations of Strike-Slip Faults
Releasing and Restraining Bends
Transtension and Transpression
Transforms
Mechanics of Strike-Slip Faulting
ESSAY: Rigid Indenters and Escape Tectonics
Chapter Highlights
Questions
Further Reading
14: Normal Faults
Properties and Geometry
Environments and Mechanics
Growth Faults
Rift Zones
Regional Crustal Extension
Hyperextension of Continental Crust and Mantle
Oceanic Core Complexes
Collapse Structures and Related Features
Relationship to Strike-Slip Faults
Final Thoughts
ESSAY: Inverted Faults and Tectonic Inheritance
Chapter Highlights
Questions
Further Reading
PART 4: Folds and Folding
15: Anatomy of Folds
Descriptive Anatomy of Folds
Fold Anatomy
Kinds of Folds
Fold Shape
Use of Parasitic Folds in Determining Position in a Fold
ESSAY: Gravity–Driven Soft-Sediment Folds and Faults
Folds at Map and Cross Section Scale
Fold Classifications
Ramsay’s Classification
Donath and Parker Classification
Which Classification to Use?
ESSAY: Folds and the Development of the Petroleum Industry
Chapter Highlights
Questions
Further Reading
16: Fold Mechanics
Fold Mechanisms and Accompanying Phenomena
Bending
Buckling
Flexural Slip
Parallel and Similar Folds
Passive Slip—A Problematical Mechanism
Kink Folding
Flexural Flow
Passive Flow (Passive Amplification)
Combined Mechanisms
Deformation Mechanisms and Strain
Discussion
Nucleation and Growth of Folds
ESSAY: A Tale of Two Folds: Deciphering the Fold Mechanisms of Two Small Folds
Chapter Highlights
Questions
Further Reading
17: Complex Folds
Occurrence and Recognition
Superposed Folds and Fold Interference Patterns
Type 0
Type 1
Type 2
Type 3
Modifications
Recognition of Multiple Fold Phases
Noncylindrical and Sheath Folds
Formation of Complex Folds
Mechanical Implications of Complex Folding
ESSAY: The Value of Rosetta Stones
Chapter Highlights
Questions
Further Reading
PART 5: Fabrics and Structural Analysis
18: Cleavage and Foliations
Definitions
Cleavage-Bedding Relationships
Cleavage Refraction
Mechanics of Slaty Cleavage Formation
ESSAY: Early Ideas on the Origin of Slaty Cleavage
Progressive Cleavage Development in Fine-Grained Sediment
Strain and Formation of Slaty Cleavage
Crenulation Cleavage
Cleavage Fans and Transecting Cleavages
Transposition
ESSAY: Cleavage Formation and the Identification of Elephants
Chapter Highlights
Questions
Further Reading
19: Linear Structures
Definitions
Nonpenetrative Linear Structures
Penetrative Linear Structures
Boudinage
Lineations as Flow and Transport Indicators
Folds and Lineations
Folded Lineations
Interpretation of Linear Structures
ESSAY: Pitfalls in Interpreting Linear Structures
Chapter Highlights
Questions
Further Reading
20: Structural Geology of Plutons
The Nature of Magma
Distinguishing Magmatic from Solid-State Tectonic Structures
The Enigma of Tabular Pluton Emplacement
Emplacement of Stocks and Batholiths
ESSAY: A Tale of Two Plutons
Chapter Highlights
Questions
Further Reading
21: Structural Analysis
Cross-Section Analysis
Deformation Plan in an Orogen
Structural Analysis Procedures
Geologic Mapping
Mesoscopic Structural Analysis
Domain Analysis
Microtextural Studies
Finite- and Incremental-Strain Studies
Fracture Analysis
Chronology of Development of Structures
Structural Analysis in Foreland Fold-Thrust Belts (Fftbs)
Structural Analysis of Multiply Deformed Rocks in the Cores of Orogens
ESSAY: Historical Development of Structural Analysis Methods in Metamorphic Rocks
Structural Analysis of Multiply Deformed and Transposed Rocks
Pitfalls in Using Style and Orientation in Polyphase-Deformed Rocks
ESSAY: Structural Analysis at Woodall Shoals
Analysis of Salt Structures
Structural Analysis in Continental Interiors
Structural Analysis in Seismically Active Regions—Insight into Paleoseismology
Background
Structural Analysis of the Lima Reservoir Fault
Chapter Highlights
Questions
Further Reading
PART 6: Appendices
Appendix 1: Structural Measurements and Observations
Directional Reference Frame and Location
Orientation of Planes: Strike and Dip
Orientation of Lines: Trend and Plunge; Rake
Recording Data
Appendix 2: Stereographic Projections and Fabric Diagrams
How to Begin Plotting Manually
Plotting Planar Structures
Plotting Linear Structures
Locating Fold Axes Using Equal-Area Plots: β and π Diagrams
β Diagrams
π Diagrams
Contouring Data
Appendix 3: Structural Cross Sections—Methods for Cross-Section Construction
Introduction
Rules of Cross-Section Construction
1. Surface Topography
2. Transferring Geologic Contacts from Map to the Section
3. Transfer of Dip Orientations from the Geologic Map to the Cross Section
4. Maintaining Constant Thickness
5. Thickness of Rock Units Related to Dip Angle
6. Vertical Exaggeration and Scale
7. Section Location and Map Name
8. Explanation of Rock Unit Symbols
9. Use of and Projection of Data from the Section Line
10. Calculation of Dip of All Contacts from Outcrop Patterns
Editorial Tips for Constructing Cross Sections
Taking Cross Sections to the Next Level—Cross-Section Balancing
Introduction
Balanced Section Construction
Limitations
Appendix 4: Woodall Shoals Fabric Data
Glossary
References Cited
Index