Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Chapter 1: Current State of the Art of Lignocellulosic Biomass: Future Biofuels
1.1 Introduction
1.2 What Is Lignocellulosic Biomass?
1.3 Structure of Lignocellulosic Biomass
1.3.1 Cellulose
1.3.2 Hemicelluloses
1.3.3 Lignin
1.4 Classification of Pretreatment Methods Used
1.4.1 Physical Pretreatment Methods
1.4.2 Physicochemical Pretreatment Methods
1.4.3 Chemical Pretreatment Methods
1.4.4 Biological Pretreatment Methods
1.4.5 Electrical Pretreatment Methods
1.4.6 Other Delignification Treatment Methods
1.4.6.1 Hot Water Pretreatments
1.4.6.2 Enzymatic Delignification
1.4.6.3 Ozonation
1.4.6.4 Biological Treatments
1.5 New Strategies for Future Biofuels
References
Chapter 2: Cellulosic Biorefinery: Concepts, Potential, and Challenges
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Biopolymer Fraction of Lignocellulosic Biomass: Cellulose, Hemicellulose, and Lignin
2.3 Lignocellulosic Substrates
2.3.1 First Generation (Food Crops)
2.3.2 Second Generation (Nonfood Crops and Lignocellulosic Wastes)
2.4 Production for Ethanol from Lignocellulosic Biomass
2.4.1 Pretreatment
2.4.2 Acid Hydrolysis
2.4.3 Enzymatic Hydrolysis
2.4.4 Bottlenecks of Pretreatment Strategies and Prospects
2.4.5 Hydrolysis and the Fermentation of Lignocellulosic Biomass
2.5 Case Study: Sugarcane Bagasse as a Potential Feedstock for Biorefineries
2.6 Opportunities and Challenges in the Lignocellulosic Biorefining
2.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 3: Biorefinery Technology for Cellulosic Biofuel Production
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Biorefinery Concept
3.2.1 Background
3.3 Types of Biorefinery
3.3.1 Entire Crop Biorefinery
3.3.2 Green Biorefinery
3.3.3 Lignocellulose Feedstock (LCF) Biorefinery
3.3.4 Incorporated Biorefinery
3.4 Major Platform Chemical Substances in Present-Day Fossil Refinery
3.4.1 Lignocellulosic Biomass as Unprocessed Materials
3.4.1.1 Biomass vs. Fossil Resources
3.4.1.2 Biomass Processing in a Biorefinery
3.5 Biorefineries: Scenarios and Challenges
3.5.1 Lignocellulosic Biomass Through Aliphatic and Aromatic Stage Compound Creation
3.5.2 Green Biomass as Crude Material for Proteins and Chemical Synthetics
3.5.3 Industrial Outlook
3.6 Current Status
3.6.1 The Role of Biorefinery in Industry
3.7 Biomass-Biorefinery-Bioeconomy
3.8 Biorefinery Concept: Future Prospects
3.9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 4: Life Cycle Assessment of Algal Biofuels
4.1 Introduction to Microalgae
4.1.1 Algae Cultivation
4.1.2 Algal Biomass to Biofuel Conversion Technologies
4.2 Life Cycle Assessment
4.2.1 System Boundary
4.2.2 Functional Unit
4.2.3 Impact Categories
4.3 LCA of Algal Biofuels
4.3.1 Effect of Type of Algae
4.3.2 Effects of Pretreatment
4.3.3 Effect of Infrastructure
4.3.4 Effect of the Functional Unit
4.3.5 Effect of co-Products
4.3.6 Ponds Vs. PBR
4.3.7 Consequential LCA
4.3.8 Uncertainty Analysis
4.4 Specialized LCAs
4.4.1 Spatially Explicit Life Cycle Assessment (SELCA)
4.4.2 Life Cycle Climate Change Impacts of Land Use and Albedo Change
4.4.3 Time-Dependent LCA
4.4.4 Harmonized LCA
4.4.5 Integration of Resilience
4.4.6 Social LCA
4.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 5: Biodiesel: Features, Potential Hurdles, and Future Direction
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Existing Feedstocks for Biodiesel Production
5.3 Production of Biodiesel from Vegetable Oils
5.3.1 Latest/Current Technologies for Biodiesel Production
5.3.1.1 Microreactor Systems for Biodiesel Synthesis
Microtube Reactors
Membrane Microreactor
Microstructured Reactor
Oscillatory Flow Reactor
5.4 Types of Transesterification
5.4.1 Catalytic Transesterification
5.4.2 Catalyst for Biodiesel Synthesis
5.4.2.1 Homogeneous Catalyst
Acid Catalyst
Base Catalyst
5.4.2.2 Heterogeneous Catalyst
5.4.3 Enzymatic Catalyst Transesterification
5.4.4 Noncatalytic Transesterification
5.5 Factors Affecting Biodiesel Synthesis
5.6 Potential Hurdles
5.7 Future of Biodiesels
5.8 Conclusions
References
Chapter 6: Solid-State Fermentation: An Alternative Approach to Produce Fungal Lipids as Biodiesel Feedstock
6.1 Biomass and Biodiesel
6.2 Single Cell Oil of Fungi as Biodiesel Feedstock
6.3 SCO Production from Renewable Carbon
6.4 Solid-State Fermentation for SCO Production from Fungi
6.5 Production of Lipases by SSF for Biodiesel Application
6.6 Downstream Processing for Lipid Recovery from Fermented Solids in SSF
6.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: Metabolic Engineering Approach for Advanced Microbial Fuel Production Using Escherichia coli
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Microbial Fatty Acid Biosynthesis and Metabolic Engineering in E. coli
7.2.1 Enzymes and Metabolic Strategies for Enhanced Fatty Acid Production
7.2.1.1 Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase
7.2.1.2 Malonly-CoA:ACP Transacylase
7.2.1.3 3-Ketoacyl-ACP Synthase I, II and III
7.2.1.4 3-Ketoacyl-ACP Reductase
7.2.1.5 3-Hydroxyacyl-ACP Dehydrase
7.2.1.6 Enoyl-ACP Reductase
7.2.1.7 ACP, ACP Synthase and ACP Phosphodiesterase
7.3 Fatty Acid Degradation in E. coli
7.4 Transcriptional Regulation of Fatty Acid Biosynthesis and Degradation in E. coli
7.5 Next-Generation Biofuel Production Using Metabolic Engineering Approach
7.5.1 Fermentative Pathways for Short-Chain Alcohol Production
7.5.2 2-Keto Acid Pathways for Short-Chain and Medium-Chain Alcohols
7.5.3 Fuels from Isoprenoid Pathways
7.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 8: Microbial Fuel Cells (MFC) and Its Prospects on Bioelectricity Potential
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Concept Invention
8.3 Materials Used to Construct MFC
8.3.1 Cathode
8.3.2 Anode
8.3.3 Proton-Exchange Membrane (PEM)
8.4 Classification of MFCs
8.4.1 Mediator MFCs
8.4.2 Mediator-Less MFCs
8.5 Design of MFC
8.5.1 Single Chambered
8.5.2 Double-Chambered MFCs
8.5.3 Other Models
8.6 Microbes Used for MFC
8.6.1 Bacteria
8.6.2 Fungi
8.6.3 Yeast
8.6.4 Algae
8.7 Factors Influencing MFC
8.7.1 pH
8.7.2 Temperature
8.7.3 Electrode Material
8.7.4 Mediators
8.7.5 Proton-Exchange Membrane (PEM)
8.8 Application
8.8.1 Biosensor
8.8.2 Biohydrogen
8.8.3 Agriculture
8.8.4 Wastewater Treatment
8.9 Recent MFC Design
8.9.1 Biofilm
8.9.2 In Silico Method
8.9.3 Self-Rechargeable Device
8.10 Future Perspective
References
Chapter 9: Biocatalysis of Biofuel Cells: Exploring the Intrinsic Bioelectrochemistry
9.1 Introduction
9.2 The Essentials of BFCs
9.2.1 Biocatalysts
9.2.1.1 Whole-Cell Biocatalysts
9.2.1.2 Enzymatic Biocatalysts
9.2.1.3 Organelle-Based Biocatalysts
9.2.2 Substrates
9.2.3 Electrodes
9.2.3.1 Anode
9.2.3.2 Cathode
9.2.4 Membrane
9.3 The Mechanisms Behind Bioelectrogenesis
9.3.1 Electron Transfer: Types
9.3.1.1 Direct Electron Transfer (DET)
9.3.1.2 Indirect Electron Transfer
9.3.2 Extra Electron Transfer Pathways: At the Molecular Level
9.3.2.1 Mtr Pathway: S. oneidensis
9.3.2.2 Branched OMC System: G. sulfurreducens
9.3.3 Resistances
9.4 Some Major BFC-Coupled Biocatalysis Pathways
9.4.1 Glucose Pathway and Energy Calculations in Saccharomyces cerevisiae
9.4.2 Plant-Microbe Symbiotic Association P-MFCs
9.4.3 Wastewater Treatment and Recalcitrant Pollutant Degradation
9.4.4 Metal Recovery
9.5 Recent Developments and Prospective Paths
9.5.1 Genetic Modification and Applying Synthetic Biology
9.5.2 Chemical Treatment
9.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 10: Bioelectric Fuel Cells: Recent Trends to Manage the Crisis on Resources for Conventional Energy
10.1 Bioelectric Fuel Cell
10.1.1 Introduction
10.1.2 Working
10.1.2.1 Acetate Oxidation
10.1.3 Chamber Mechanism
10.1.4 Classification of Microbial Fuel Cell
10.1.5 Requirements
10.1.5.1 Anode Chamber
10.1.5.2 Cathode Chamber
10.1.5.3 Membrane System
10.1.6 Design and Construction
10.1.6.1 Designs
10.1.6.2 Single-Chamber MFC
10.1.6.3 Double-Chamber Designs
10.1.6.4 Vertical or Up-Flow Chamber MFCs
10.1.6.5 Stacked Designs
10.1.7 Drawbacks of Each Design
10.2 Non-hazardous Solid Waste
10.2.1 Categories and Sources
10.2.2 Technical Disposal
10.2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages
10.3 Biological Systems
10.3.1 Classification of Biological Systems
10.3.2 Microbes
10.3.2.1 Bacteria
10.3.2.2 Fungi
10.3.2.3 Yeast
10.3.3 Algae
10.3.4 Plants
10.4 Biomass
10.4.1 Classification
10.4.2 Energy Values of Biomass
10.4.2.1 Agricultural Biomass
10.4.2.2 Forest Biomass
10.4.2.3 Animal Residues (or) Biomass
10.4.2.4 Human Waste
10.5 Future Perspective
References
Chapter 11: Bioethanol: Substrates, Current Status, and Challenges
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Bioethanol Generations
11.2.1 First-Generation Ethanol
11.2.1.1 Feedstock and Production Technology
Sugarcane
Sugar Beet
Sweet Sorghum
Corn
Wheat
Cassava
Ethanol from Other Starchy Materials
11.2.1.2 Current Status and Challenges
11.2.2 Second-Generation Ethanol
11.2.2.1 Production Technology
11.2.2.2 Feedstock
11.2.2.3 Current Status and Challenges
11.2.3 Third-Generation Ethanol
11.2.3.1 Feedstock and Production Technology
11.2.3.2 Current Status and Challenges
11.2.4 Fourth-Generation Ethanol
References
Chapter 12: Progress and Perspectives of Nanomaterials for Bioenergy Production
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Characteristics and Properties of Nanoparticles
12.2.1 Characteristics of Nanoparticles
12.2.2 Nanoparticles for Bioprocesses
12.3 Role of Nanoparticles in Bioenergy Generation
12.3.1 Biodiesel Production
12.3.2 Biogas Production
12.3.3 Bioelectrochemical Systems
12.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 13: Nanofarming: Nanotechnology in Biofuel Production
13.1 Introduction
13.1.1 What Is Biofuel?
13.1.2 Classification of Biofuel
13.1.3 Production of Biofuel
13.1.3.1 Manufacture Techniques for Biofuel
13.1.3.2 Historical Perspective
Algal Biodiesel
Biohydrogen
13.2 Nanotechnology in Biofuel Production
13.2.1 Synthesis and Properties of Nanomaterials
13.2.2 Nanotechnology and Biofuel Production
13.2.2.1 Biohydrogen Production
13.2.2.2 Biodiesel Production
13.2.2.3 Bioethanol Production
13.2.3 Nanotechnology in Bioenergy Production
13.2.3.1 Nano Facilitators in Biodiesel Fabrication
13.2.3.2 Nano Reagents in Bioethanol Fabrication
13.3 Conclusion
References
Chapter 14: Potential of Extremophiles in Bioelectrochemical Systems and Biohydrogen Production
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Microbial Electrolytic Cells (MECs)
14.3 MECs General Concepts
14.4 CathodeΒ΄s Reactions
14.5 Separators
14.6 Couplings of MFC-MEC
14.7 Microbial Photo-Coupled Device
14.8 MECs and Fermentation
14.9 Wastewater-Processing MECs
14.10 Electrochemical Constraints
14.10.1 Electrodes
14.10.2 Design
14.10.3 Connectivity
14.10.4 Operational Restrictions
14.10.5 Loading of Substrates
14.10.6 Economics
14.10.7 Extremophiles
14.11 Extremophiles and Its Types
14.11.1 Acidophiles
14.11.2 Challenges in Design
14.11.3 Alkaliphiles
14.11.4 Design and Challenges
14.11.5 Thermophiles
14.11.6 Design and Challenges
14.11.7 Halophiles
14.11.8 Design and Challenges
14.11.9 Biohydrogen Production
14.11.10 Hydrogen Production Pathway
14.11.11 Thermophilic Species
14.11.12 Thermotoga Species
14.12 Conclusion
References