Spaceborne Synthetic Aperture Radar Remote Sensing: Techniques and Applications

✍ Scribed by Shashi Kumar, Paul Siqueira, Himanshu Govil, Shefali Agrawal

• Publisher: CRC Press
• Year: 2023
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 433
• Edition: 1
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

This book provides basic and advanced concepts of synthetic aperture radar (SAR), PolSAR, InSAR, PolInSAR, and all necessary information about various applications and analysis of data of multiple sensors. It includes information on SAR remote sensing, data processing, and separate applications of SAR technology, compiled in one place. It will help readers to use active microwave imaging sensor-based information in geospatial technology and applications.

This book:

• Covers basic and advanced concepts of synthetic aperture radar (SAR) remote sensing.

• Introduces spaceborne SAR sensors.

• Discusses applications of SAR remote sensing in earth observation.

• Explores utilization of SAR data for solid earth, ecosystem, and cryosphere, including imaging of extra-terrestrial bodies.

• Includes PolSAR and PolInSAR for aboveground forest biomass retrieval, as well as InSAR and PolSAR for snow parameters retrieval.

This book is aimed at researchers and graduate students in remote sensing, photogrammetry, geoscience, image processing, agriculture, environment, forestry, and image processing.　　　　　　

✦ Table of Contents

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
Editor Biographies
Contributors
1 Synthetic Aperture Radar Remote Sensing
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Coherent Radar
1.2 Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) Geometry
1.3 Normalized Radar Backscatter Cross-Section
1.4 Local Angle of Incidence
1.5 SAR Polarizations
1.6 SAR Imaging Mode
References
2 Speckle Reduction in SAR Images
2.1 Introduction
2.2 SAR Imaging Modalities
2.2.1 Amplitude/Intensity Modality
2.2.2 Polarimetric Modality
2.2.3 Multi-Frequency Modality
2.2.4 Interferometric Modality
2.2.5 Polarimetric-Interferometric Modality
2.3 Single-Channel SAR Images Restoration
2.3.1 Speckle Model
2.3.2 Despeckling Filters
2.3.2.1 Local Framework
2.3.2.2 Nonlocal Framework
2.3.2.3 Deep Learning Strategies for SAR Image Despeckling
2.3.3 Despeckling Evaluation Metrics
2.3.3.1 Qualitative Assessments
2.3.3.2 Quantitative Assessments
2.4 Multi-Channel SAR Images Restoration
2.4.1 Speckle Model
2.4.2 Despeckling Filters
2.4.2.1 Local Framework
2.4.2.2 Nonlocal (NL) Framework
2.4.2.3 Deep Learning Framework
2.4.3 Despeckling Evaluation Metrics
2.5 Open Issues and Future Trends
Note
References
3 Polarimetric Interferometric Decomposition
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Limitations in Target Identification
3.3 Polarimetric Interferometric Fundamentals and Advancements
3.3.1 Radar Imaging
3.3.2 Polarization of EM Waves
3.3.3 Scattering Matrix
3.3.4 PolSAR
3.3.5 Scattering Vectors, Coherency Matrix, and Covariance Matrix
3.3.6 Target Decomposition
3.3.7 Model-Based Decomposition
3.3.8 Classical Three-Component Decomposition Model
3.3.9 Four-Component Decomposition Model
3.3.10 Polarization Orientation Angle (POA) Compensation
3.4 Polarimetric SAR Interferometry (PolInSAR)
3.4.1 Polarimetric Interferometric Decomposition Model
3.4.2 Hybrid Decomposition
3.4.3 Data Preprocessing
3.4.4 Fine Co-Registration
3.4.5 PolInSAR Coherence Estimation
3.4.6 Coherence Optimization and Selection
3.4.7 Entropy and Alpha Angle
3.4.8 Model Workflow and the Constraint Equation
3.5 Experiment With Spaceborne Data
3.5.1 Coherence Selection
3.5.2 Coherence Optimization
3.5.3 Scattering Ambiguity in Generic Decomposition Models
3.6 Constraint Equation
3.7 Results of Hybrid Decomposition Model
3.7.1 Comparative Analysis
3.7.2 Comparison With Existing Decomposition Models
3.7.3 Scattering Entropy Evaluation
3.7.4 Limitation of POA Compensation
3.8 Discussions
3.8.1 Factors Affecting PolInSAR Coherence
3.8.2 PolInSAR Coherence and Decomposition Modeling
3.8.3 Statistical Significance of PolInSAR Coherence
3.9 Conclusion and Recommendations
References
4 Implementation of Machine Learning Classification Models On Multifrequency Band SAR Dataset
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Study Area
4.3 Methodology
4.4 Pre-Processing
4.5 PolSAR Decomposition
4.6 Training Data Generation
4.7 Methods for Machine Learning Classifiers
4.7.1 K-Nearest Neighbor (KNN) Classification Model
4.7.2 Naïve Bayes Classification
4.7.3 Random Forest Classification
4.7.4 Support Vector Machine Classification
4.8 Conclusion and Recommendations
References
5 Implementation of Neural Network-Based Classification Models On Multifrequency Band SAR Dataset
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Neural Network Models
5.3 Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP) Classification Model
5.3.1 Study Area
5.3.2 Methodology
5.3.3 Pre-Processing
5.3.4 PolSAR Decomposition
5.3.5 Training Data Generation
5.3.6 Architecture of Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP) Classification Model
5.4 Compact CNN Classification Model Using Sliding-Window Operations
5.5 The DeepLabv3+ Classification Model
5.6 Conclusion and Recommendations
References
6 Improved Data Fusion-Based Land Use/Land Cover Classification Using PolSAR and Optical Remotely Sensed Satellite Data: ...
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Problems in Monitoring Land Use/Land Cover Change
6.1.2 SAR Polarimetry
6.1.3 Application of PolSAR in Land Cover (LC) Classification
6.1.4 Advantages of PolSAR Over Optical Datasets
6.2 Materials and Methods
6.2.1 Study Area and Datasets
6.2.1.1 Study Area
6.2.1.2 Datasets
6.2.2 Polarimetric Decomposition
6.2.2.1 Coherent Decompositions
6.2.2.2 Incoherent Decompositions
6.2.3 Data Fusion Techniques Used
6.2.3.1 Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
6.2.3.2 Wavelet-Based Fusion
6.2.3.3 Intensity Hue Saturation Method
6.2.3.4 High Pass Filtering (HPF) Fusion
6.2.3.5 Average Method
6.2.4 Selection of Classifiers
6.2.4.1 Parametric Classifiers
6.2.4.2 Non-Parametric Classifiers
6.2.4.3 K-Means Nearest Neighbourhood Classifier (KNN)
6.2.4.4 Support Vector Machine (SVM) Classification
6.2.4.5 Artificial Neural Network (ANN) Classifier
6.2.4.6 Random Forest Classifier
6.2.4.7 Object-Based Image Classification (OBIC)
6.2.5 Methods
6.3 Results and Conclusion
6.3.1 Polarimetric Decomposition
6.3.2 Classification Results
6.3.2.1 KNN Classification
6.3.2.2 Random Forest (RF) Classification
6.3.2.3 Artificial Neural Network (ANN) Classification
6.2.4.4 Support Vector Machine (SVM) Classification
6.2.4.5 Object-Based Image Classification (OBIC)
6.4 Conclusions
References
7 Polarimetric SAR Descriptors for Rice Monitoring
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Methodology
7.2.1 The Kennaugh Matrix Framework
7.2.2 Target Characterization Parameters
7.2.3 Scattering Power Decomposition
7.3 Study Area and Satellite Data
7.3.1 Indian Test Site
7.3.1.1 Satellite Dataset and Pre-Processing
7.3.2 Spanish Test Site
7.3.2.1 Satellite Dataset and Pre-Processing
7.3.3 In-Situ Measurement Procedures and Rice Morphology
7.3.3.1 Morphological Characteristics of Rice Across Its Phenological Stages
7.4 Results and Discussion
7.4.1 Temporal Analysis Over Two Test Sites and Different Incidence Angle
7.4.2 Rice Phenology Classification
7.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
8 Synergistic Fusion of Spaceborne Polarimetric SAR and Hyperspectral Data for Land Cover Classification
8.1 Introduction
8.1.1 Background
8.2 Study Area and Datasets Used
8.2.1 Study Area
8.2.2 Datasets Used
8.2.2.1 EO-1 Hyperion Data
8.2.2.2 Radarsat-2 Data
8.2.2.3 ALOS PALSAR Data
8.3 Research Methodology
8.3.1 Processing of the Datasets
8.3.1.1 Pre-Processing of Hyperion Data
8.3.1.2 Processing of PolSAR Data
8.3.1.3 Multiple-Component Scattering Model (MCSM) Decomposition
8.3.1.4 Surface Scattering
8.3.1.5 Double-Bounce Scattering
8.3.1.6 Volume Scattering
8.3.1.7 Helix Scattering
8.3.1.8 Wire Scattering
8.3.1.9 Geocoding of Extracted Polsar Parameters and Co- Registration With Hyperspectral Image
8.3.2 Pixel-Level Fusion
8.3.2.1 High-Pass Filter Fusion
8.3.2.2 Wavelet Fusion
8.3.2.3 Gram–Schmidt Fusion
8.3.3 Feature-Level Fusion
8.3.3.1 Kernel-Based Principal Component Analysis Feature Extraction in Hyperion
8.3.3.2 MCSM-Based Feature Extraction in Radarsat-2 and ALOS PALSAR
8.3.4 Decision-Level Fusion
8.3.4.1 One-Against-All Multiclass SVM Classification
8.4 Classification and Accuracy Assessment
8.4.1 Classification
8.4.1.1 Support Vector Machines (SVM)
8.4.2 Accuracy Assessment
8.4.2.1 Cross-Validation
8.4.2.2 Holdout Method With Parameter Tuning
8.4.3 Comparative Analysis
8.5 Results and Discussion
8.5.1 Results
8.5.1.1 Results of Pixel-Level Fusion
8.5.1.2 Results of Feature-Level Fusion
8.5.1.3 Results of Decision-Level Fusion
8.5.2 Comparative Analysis of All The Three Levels of Fusion of Hyperspectral and PolSAR Data
8.6 Conclusion and Recommendation
8.6.1 Conclusion
8.6.2 Recommendations
References
9 Marine Oil Slick Detection Using Synthetic Aperture Radar Remote Sensing Techniques
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Types of Oil
9.3 Weathering Processes
9.4 Major Oil Spill Incidents
9.5 Cleanup Procedure and Associated Costs
9.5.1 Monetary Costs Associated With Oil Spills
9.6 Oil Spill Detection Procedure
9.7 SAR Remote Sensing for Oil Spill Detection
9.7.1 Polarization Signature Analysis of the Oil Spill Patches
9.7.2 Decomposition Models
9.7.2.1 Coherent Decomposition Models
9.7.2.2 Incoherent Decomposition Models
9.7.2.3 Eigenvalue/Eigenvector Decomposition – Decomposition
9.8 Separability Analysis
9.9 Classification Techniques
9.9.1 Support Vector Machine
9.9.2 Wishart Supervised Classification
9.10 Accuracy Assessment
9.10.1 AUC (Area Under the Curve) and ROC (Receiver Operating Characteristics)
9.11 Conclusions and Future Work
References
10 Spaceborne C-Band PolSAR Backscatter and PolInSAR Coherence-Based Modeling for Forest Aboveground Biomass Estimation
10.1 A Brief History of Applications of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) for Biophysical Parameter Retrieval
10.2 Doon Valley Forests at a Glance
10.3 Overview of the Fundamentals and Methodological Development
10.4 Illustration of the Outcomes of the Analysis
10.5 Inferences
References
11 Analysis of Polarimetric Techniques for Characterization of Glacial Feature
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Study Area and Datasets
11.2.1 Study Area
11.2.1.1 Gangotri Glacier
11.2.1.2 Siachen Glacier
11.2.2 Datasets
11.4 Methodology
11.4.1 Calculation of Backscattering Coefficient σ⁰
11.4.2 Scattering Matrix
11.4.3 Target Decomposition
11.4.3.1 Eigenvalue–Eigenvector Decomposition
11.4.3.2 Freeman–Durden Decomposition
11.4.4 Stokes Parameters
11.5 Results and Discussion
11.5.1 Backscattering Coefficient σ^o Image Interpretation
11.5.1.1 Siachen Glacier Ablation Zone
11.5.1.2 Gangotri Glacier
11.5.2 Results of H-A-Α Decomposition
11.5.2.1 Gangotri Glacier
11.5.2.2 Siachen Glacier
11.5.3 Results of Freeman–Durden Decomposition
11.5.3.1 Gangotri Glacier
11.5.3.2 Siachen Glacier
11.5.4 Stokes Parameter-Based Approach
11.5.4.1 Circular Polarization Ratio (CPR)
11.6 Conclusion
References
12 Spaceborne SAR Application to Study Ice Flow Variation of Potsdam Glacier and Polar Record Glacier, East Antarctica
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Role of Spaceborne SAR in Antarctica
12.3 Glacier Velocity Estimation Using Spaceborne SAR
12.4 Study Area and Dataset
12.5 Methodology
12.5.1 Glacier Velocity Estimation Using DInSAR
12.5.2 Glacier Velocity Estimation Using Offset Tracking
12.5.3 Field Measurements
12.6 Results and Discussion
12.6.1 DInSAR-Based Glacier Velocity Estimation for Potsdam Glacier
12.6.2 Offset Tracking Based Glacier Velocity Estimation for PRG
12.7 Conclusion
References
13 Multi-Temporal SAR Interferometry: Theory, Processing, and Applications
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
13.3 Geometric Distortions in SAR
13.4 SAR Interferometry (InSAR)
13.5 MT-InSAR (Advanced InSAR Technique) Processing Chain
13.5.1 StaMPS: Stanford Method for Persistent Scatterers
13.5.1.1 Generation of Interferogram
13.5.1.2 PS Selection
13.5.1.3 Phase Stability Estimation
13.5.1.4 Phase Unwrapping and Displacement Estimation
13.5.1.5 SBAS
13.6 Monitoring of Landslides in Nainital (Uttarakhand, India) Using StaMPS
13.7 Monitoring of Landslides in Nainital (Uttarakhand, India) Using StaMPS
13.8 Surface Deformation Measurement of the L’Aquila Region
13.9 Conclusions
References
14 SAR for Cultural Heritage Monitoring
14.1 Remote Sensing for Cultural Heritage Sites
14.2 Study Area
14.2.1 Angkor Wat
14.2.2 Structure
14.2.3 Hydraulic Network
14.2.4 Geomorphological
14.3 Dataset
14.4 PSInSAR Processing of Sentinel Data
14.5 Results
14.5.1 PS Identification
14.5.2 LOS Displacement of 2006 to 2009
14.5.3 LOS Displacement of 2014 to 2018
14.5.4 LOS Displacement 2017 to 2021
14.6 Discussion
14.7 Conclusion
References
15 Extraction and Evaluation of Lineaments From DEMs Generated From Different Bands of Microwave Data and Optical Data: …
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Study Area
15.2.1 Geological Settings of the Study Area
15.3 Data Used
15.3.1 Microwave Data
15.3.1.1 Sentinel-1A
15.3.1.2 ALOS-I PALSAR
15.3.2 Optical Data
15.3.2.1 ALOS World 3D-30m (AW3D30)
15.4 Methodology
15.4.1 Generation of DEM
15.4.1.1 Sentinel-1A
15.4.1.2 ALOS-I PALSAR
15.4.2 Comparison of DEMs
15.4.3 Automatic Lineament Extraction
15.4.4 Comparison of Extracted Lineaments
15.5 Results
15.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
16 Scatterer-Based Deformation Monitoring Induced Due to Coal Mining By DInSAR Techniques
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Study Area and Data Used
16.2.1 Study Area
16.2.2 Datasets Used
16.3 Methodology
16.3.1 Baseline Estimation
16.3.2 Co-Registration
16.3.3 Generation of Interferogram
16.3.4 Coherence Estimation
16.3.5 Topographic Phase Removal
16.3.6 Phase Unwrapping
16.3.7 Phase Filtering
16.3.8 Identification and Selection of Persistent Scatterers
16.3.9 Atmospheric Phase Screen Estimation and Its Correction
16.3.10 Persistent Scatterer Coherence Map Generation
16.3.11 Generation of Cumulative Displacement Map and Monitoring Deformation History
16.4 Results and Discussion
16.5 Conclusion
References
17 An Insight to the Lunar Surface: Characterization From the L- and S-Band Polarimetric Data
17.1 Introduction
17.2 The Moon: A Catapult for Future Space Missions
17.2.1 Importance of the Moon in the Indian Space Program
17.2.2 Human Footprints On the Moon: The Manned Missions On the Lunar Surface
17.2.3 The Chronicle of Lunar Exploration: Lander, Orbiter, and Impactor
17.2.4 Future Lunar Missions
17.3 The New Era of SAR-Based Missions for the Lunar Surface
17.3.1 Chandrayaan-1
17.3.2 Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter
17.3.3 Chandrayaan-2
17.4 Crater Formation
17.4.1 Types of Craters
17.5 Lunar Pyroclastic Deposits
17.6 Lunar Rilles
17.7 South Pole
17.8 Circular Polarization Ratio
17.9 Decomposition Techniques
17.9.1 M-δ Decomposition
17.9.2 M-χ Decomposition
17.9.3 M-α Decomposition
17.10 Study Area and Datasets
17.10.1 Shackleton Crater
17.10.2 Erlanger Crater
17.10.3 Slater Crater
17.10.4 Rimae Sulpicius Gallus
17.11 Results
17.11.1 Shackleton Crater
17.11.1.1 M-δ (Delta) Decomposition
17.11.1.2 M-Χ (Chi) Decomposition
17.11.1.3 M-α (Alpha) Decomposition
17.11.2 Analysis of CPR
17.11.3 Slater Crater
17.11.3.1 Barnes Decomposition
17.11.4 Erlanger Crater
17.11.4.1 M-δ (Delta) Decomposition
17.11.4.2 M-Χ (Chi) Decomposition
17.11.4.3 M-α (Alpha) Decomposition
17.11.4.4 Analysis of CPR
17.11.4.5 Barnes Decomposition
17.11.5 Rimae Sulpicius Gallus
17.12 Conclusions
References
18 Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) Data Calibration and Validation
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Significance of SAR Calibration
18.3 Types of SAR Calibrations
18.3.1 Internal Calibration
18.3.2 External Calibration
18.3.2.1 Active Targets
18.3.2.2 Passive Targets
18.3.2.3 Distributed Targets
18.4 Corner Reflectors
18.4.1 Types of Corner Reflectors
18.4.1.1 Trihedral Corner Reflectors
18.4.1.2 Corner Reflectors for Polarimetric Calibration
18.4.1.3 Dihedral Corner Reflectors
18.4.1.4 Polarization Selective Dihedrals
18.4.1.5 Interferometric SAR Calibration
18.4.1.6 Self-Illuminating Corner Reflectors
18.4.2 Construction and Fabrication of Corner Reflectors
18.4.3 Selection of Calibration Site and Deployment of Corner Reflectors
18.5 Types of SAR Calibration and Validation
18.5.1 Radiometric Calibration
18.5.2 Geometric Calibration
Appendix
References
Index