Series Preface
Volume Preface
Contents
About the Editor-in-Chief
About the Editors
Contributors
Part I: Introduction
Solar Thermal Energy: Introduction
Glossary
Section Content Overview
Bibliography
Solar Thermal Energy: History
Glossary
Definition of the Subject
Introduction
Renewable Energy Technologies
History of Solar Energy
Concentrating System for Power Production
Solar Drying
Solar Desalination
History of Desalination
Conclusions
References
Part II: Solar Thermal Concentrated Systems
Estimation of Concentrated Solar Power Potential
Glossary
Abbreviations
Definition of the Subject and its Importance
Introduction
Worldwide CSP Potential
DNI Maps of Different World Regions
Assessment Criteria for CSP Potential Analysis
Exclusion Criteria
DNI
Slope of the Terrain
Excluded Land
Protected Areas
Limiting Criteria
Land Use
Infrastructure (Roads, Power Transmission Lines)
Geology and Natural Hazards (Earthquake, Storm, Flood, High Wind Load)
Geomorphology/ Soil Characteristics
Hydrology/ Water Demand/ Cooling Mode
Energy Demand
Impact (Acoustic, Visual)
Methods and Examples
Conclusions
Bibliography
Parabolic Trough Solar Technology
Glossary
Definition of the Subject and its Importance
Introduction
Technology Description
PTC Mirror
Absorber (Receiver)
Performance Properties of Receivers for PTC
Support Structure
Tracking and Drive Mechanism
Foundation and Pylons
Heat Transfer Fluid
PTC Performance
Future Directions
Bibliography
Primary Literature
Books and Reviews
Linear Fresnel Collectors
Glossary
Definition of the Subject and Its Importance
Introduction
Design of Linear Fresnel Reflectors
Reference Area
Receiver Design
Benefits and Disadvantages
Future Directions
Bibliography
Concentrating Receiver Systems (Solar Power Tower)
Glossary
Definition of the Subject and Its Importance
Introduction
Advantages of the Use of CRS for Supply of Energy
Concentrating Receiver Systems for Power Production
Heliostat Field
Heliostat Components
Heliostat Types
Heliostat Shapes
Canted-Glass Mirror Heliostat
Stretched-Membrane Focused and Nonfocused Heliostat
Flat-Type Single-Mirror Heliostats
Heliostat Size
Heliostat Field Design
Theoretical Considerations
Heliostat Aiming Strategies
Receiver
Direct Absorption Receiver: Falling Particle or Molten Salt Liquid Film
Tube Receiver
Cavity Receiver
Air Receiver
Open Volumetric Receiver
Pressured Volumetric Receiver
Tower
Providing Firm and Dispatchable Power
Characteristics of Different Heat Transfer Fluids
Molten Salt
Water/Steam
Air
Others
Increase of Operation Hours of CRS by Storage and Hybridization
Storage
Hybridization
Examples of CRS Plants
Research Facilities
Solar One
Solar Two
National Solar Thermal Test Facility
CESA-1
Themis
CSIRO
Solar Research Facility Unit
Solar Tower Plant Jรผlich (STJ)
Commercial
Sierra SunTower
PS10
PS20
Gemasolar
Solar Tower Plant Jรผlich (STJ)
Crescent Dunes Solar Energy Project (Tonopah)
Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating Station (ISEGS)
Ashalim Solar Thermal Power Station (Megalim)
NOOR III
Khi Solar One
Under Construction or Under Development
Secondary Uses of CRS
Economical Considerations
Investment Costs
Operation and Maintenance Costs
Levelized Electricity Cost
Future Cost Development
Future Directions
Bibliography
Primary Literature
Books and Reviews
Solar Dish Systems
Glossary
Definition of the Subject
Definition of a Solar Dish
Origins of Solar Dishes
The Challenge of Low Cost
Styles of Solar Dishes
Evolution of Designs
Size
Tracking Style
Structure
Mirror Panels
Power Conversion Units
Stirling Engines
Steam Engines
Steam Generation
Organic Rankine Cycles
Air Brayton
Concentrating Photovoltaic (CPV)
Thermochemical
Energy Storage
Dish-Mounted Thermal Storage
Central Thermal Storage
Cost Reduction Opportunities
Future Directions
Acknowledgments
References
Solar Updraft Towers
Glossary
Definition of the Subject and Its Importance
Introduction
Solar Updraft Tower Technical Concept
Principle
Components
Collector
Glass Roof
Designing the Canopy Near the Tower
Vacuum-Cleaning the Roof
Storage
Tower
Loads on the Tower
Turbines
Turbine Layout
Airflow
Calculations
Flow Redirection into the Tower
Generator
Safety
Physical Model
Prototype
Transferring the Results to Large-Scale Plants
Large-Scale Solar Updraft Towers
General System Advantages
Electricity Generation Costs
Future Directions
References
Primary Literature
Books and Reviews
Part III: Application of Solar Thermal Concentrated Systems
Parabolic Trough and Solar Tower Power Plants, Measuring Systems, Testing, and Monitoring Methods
Glossary
Definition of the Subject
Introduction
Site Survey with Weather Sensors
Irradiation Measurement and Sunshine Forecast
Further Weather Sensors and Measuring Stations for a Site Survey
Surveying of the Sunshape
Measurement of the Essential Features of Various Key Components
Tests in the Mirror Field
Inspection of the Geometric Quality of the Mirrors
Deflectometry
Photogrammetry
Laser Scan Concept
Inspection of the Quality of Reflection
Technique for Measurement of the Orientation of Heliostats
Use of Camera Drone for Thermal and Optical Surveys
Examination of the Receiver
Flux Density Measurement at the Absorber
Flux Density Measurement: Measuring Methods on Solar Towers and Solar Ovens
Flux Density Measurement: Measuring Methods on Parabolic Trough Systems and Fresnel Mirror Systems
Receiver Reflection Method
ParaScan
Infrared Light Measurement at the Absorber
References
Dynamical Behavior of CSP Plants
Glossary
Introduction
Dynamic Behavior: A Classification Related to Time Scales
Dynamic Behavior of Parabolic Trough Systems
Solar Field Temperature Control
Solar Field Start-Up Process
Coupling of the Solar Field to the Storage and Power Block
Dynamic Behavior of Solar Tower Systems
General Considerations
Model Based Control Methods
Operation of Molten Salt Receiver Systems
Problematic Cloud Situations
Nowcasting Systems
Calculation of Annual Energy Production
Future Directions
Bibliography
Solar Simulators
Glossary
Definition of the Subject
Introduction
Applications
Space Solar Simulators
Solar Simulators for PV Cells
Solar Simulators for CSP
Further Applications
Light Sources
General Requirements
Airmass Spectra
Classification of Spectral Matching
Power Output
Discharge Lamps
Carbon Arc Lamp
Xenon Short-Arc Lamp
Metal Halide Lamp
Argon Lamps
Tungsten Halogen Lamp
Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
Simulator Design
Preliminary Remarks
Optical Devices
Reflectors
Reflective Coating
Fresnel Lenses
High-Flux Solar Simulators
Elliptic Reflector Based Design
Fresnel Lens Based Design
Low-Flux Solar Simulators
Xenon Lamp Based Design
LED-Based Design
Halogen-LED Hybrid Solar Simulators
Flux Measurement and Flux Profiles
Flux Measurements
Strategies for Setting Up the Required Flux Profile
Outlook
Bibliography
Further Reading
Porous Materials for Solar Energy Harvesting, Transformation, and Storage
Glossary
Definition of the Subject
Introduction
The Basic Receiver Principles
The Basic Receiver/Reactor Principles
The Basic Principles of Thermochemical Storage Technology
Physical Requirements of Porous Structures for Use as Receivers
Porous Structures Applied as Volumetric or Tube Receivers
Extruded Silicon Carbide Catalyst Carriers (Hitrec)
Additively Manufactured Metals
Advanced Cellular Metal Honeycombs
Engineered Hybrid Tube Receivers
Metal Wire Meshes
Ceramic Foams
SiC Fiber Mesh
Screen Printed Absorber Samples (Direct Typing Process)
Material Combinations
Overview
Porous Structures Used as Receiver/Reactors
Porous Structures in Thermochemical Storage Systems
Absorber Qualification
Physical Restrictions of Volumetric Receivers
Experimental Determination of Non-stable Flow
Conclusions
Nomenclature
References
Thermal Energy Storage
Glossary
Definition of the Subject
Introduction
Principles of Sensible Heat Storage
Solid Storage Materials
Liquid Storage Materials
Applications of Water Storages for Solar Energy
Molten Salt
Further Liquid Storage Materials
Principles of Latent Heat Storage
Cold Storage (0 C and Below)
Low-Temperature Storage (0-120 C)
Salt Hydrates
Paraffins
Applications for Solar Heating and Cooling
High-Temperature PCM Storage (Above 120 C)
Heat Transfer Concepts and Composites
Principles of Chemical Heat Storage
Gas-Solid Dissociation Reactions
Catalytic Reactions
Thermal Energy Storage for Concentrated Solar Power
Classification of Thermal Storage Systems
Thermal Energy Storage Concepts
Direct Storage of Liquid Working Fluid
Direct Storage with Phase Change (Steam Accumulators)
Indirect Storage Concepts
Indirect Storage in Solid Media
Indirect Storage in Liquid Media
Indirect Storage with Phase Change Materials
Regenerator Storage for Solar Central Receiver Plants
Future Directions
Bibliography
Solar Energy in Thermochemical Processing
Glossary
Definition of the Subject and Its Importance
Introduction
Thermodynamics of Solar Thermochemical Conversion
Solar Thermochemical Processes
Solar Production of Fuels
Solar Production of Metals
Solar Production of H2/CO from H2O/CO2 Splitting and/or Fossil Fuels
Solar Production of H2 from Fossil Fuels
Solar Production of H2 from H2S
Solar Production of Material Commodities
Solar Metals and Metal Oxides, Metallic Carbides, and Nitrides
Solar Fullerenes and Carbon Nanotubes
Solar Lime and Cement
Solar Thermal Recycling of Hazardous Waste Materials
Life Cycle and Economic Analysis
Future Directions
Note
Nomenclature
Bibliography
Primary Literature
Books and Reviews
Part IV: Non-concentrating Solar Thermal Systems and Their Application
Solar Collectors, Non-concentrating
Glossary
Definition of the Subject
Introduction
Functioning of a Solar Collector
Construction of Solar Thermal Collectors
Absorber
Absorber Coating: Photo Thermal Layer
Absorber Material
Heat Removal Construction
Transparent Cover
Other Collector Housing Elements
Insulation
Reflector
Collector Types
Noncovered Flat Plate Collectors: WISC
Covered Liquid-Heating Flat-Plate Collectors
Evacuated Tube Collectors
Air-Heating Collectors
Future Directions
Bibliography
Solar Cookers and Dryers to Conserve Human and Planet Health
Glossary
Definition of the Subject
Introduction
Solar Driers
Direct Solar Dryer
Indirect Solar Drier
Combined Solar Dryer
Cooking of Food
Energy and Temperature Required for Cooking
History of Solar Cooking
Different Types of Cookers
Hot-Box-Type Cookers
Concentrating-Type Cookers
Vapor-Type Cookers
Hybrid Cookers
Energy Storage Cookers
Authorยดs Work: Personal Interest in Solar Cooking
Food Warmer
Simple Hot Box Oven
Concentrating Cooker
Some Problems
Hybrid Cookers (Sun - AC Electricity)
Hybrid Cooker (Sun - Gas)
Electric Storage Models
Solar-Electric Microwave Oven
Portable 12-VDC Cooker
Solar Multi-voltage Cooker
Multipurpose Device
Solar Cooker Cum Water Heater
Solar Cooker Cum Dryer
Multipurpose and Hybrid Food Processor (Solar-Electric 110-VAC Cooker/Water, Pasteurizer/Still, and Dryer)
Two Compartments Oven
Some Models of Other Authors
Cook Kit Model
Hybrid Concentrating Model
Advantages
Energy Saving
Cash Saving
Human Health
Social Aspects
Environmental Aspects
Other Uses of Solar Cooker
Number of Solar Cookers Globally
What Can Be Done to Extend the Use of Solar Cookers
Conclusions
Future Directions
Bibliography
Primary Literature
Books and Reviews
Solar Cooling Systems
Glossary
Definition of the Subject and Its Importance
Introduction
Physical Principles
Conversion Chains
Thermodynamic Analysis of Thermally Driven Chillers
Common System Designs
Closed Absorption Systems
Closed Adsorption Systems
Open Solid Desiccant Systems
Open Liquid Desiccant Systems
Subsystems and Further Equipment Components
Energy and Cost Performance
Energy Balance
Economical Assessment
Methodology of Economical Assessment - An Exemplary Simulation Study
System Experiences
Summary of Experiences
Future Directions
Bibliography
Primary Literature
Books and Reviews
Solar Detoxification and Disinfection of Water
Glossary
Definition of the Subject and Its Importance
Introduction
Solar TiO2 (Heterogeneous) Photocatalysis Applied to Water Decontamination
Fundamental Parameters Affecting Kinetics in Solar TiO2 (Heterogeneous) Photocatalysis Applied to Water Decontamination
Mass of Catalyst
pH
Temperature
Radiant Flux
Concentration of Oxygen
Solar Photo-Fenton
Effect of pH
Effect of Iron Concentration and Iron Source
Effect of Temperature
Solar Disinfection and Photocatalytic Disinfection
Solar Disinfection
Solar Photocatalytic Disinfection
Solar Hardware for Water Decontamination and Disinfection
Future Directions
Bibliography
Primary Literature
Books and Reviews
Part V: Common Closing Subject
Solar Thermal Systems: Life Cycle Assessment
Glossary
Definition of the Subject
Introduction to LCA: What Is It, What Does It Consider, Why Is It So Important
Introduction to the LCA Methodology for Multicriteria Analysis (MCA)
Considerations in LCA
History of LCA
Significance and Limitations of LCA
LCA Focus
LCA for CSP
LCA for Parabolic Trough Collector Systems
LCA for Solar Tower Systems
LCA for Solar Thermal Systems at Low Temperature
LCA Comparison Results to Other Renewable Systems
Conclusions
Bibliography
Index