Soil Conservation and Management

✍ Scribed by Humberto Blanco, Rattan Lal

• Publisher: Springer
• Year: 2023
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 621
• Edition: 2
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

This updated and expanded second edition textbook, describes all main aspects of soil management, to address the serious problems of soil erosion and the attendant environmental pollution. The global high demands for food, fiber, feed, and fuel put a constant strain on the environment, which can only be mitigated by soil conservation.

This edition incorporates new concepts and provides an up-to-date review of soil management principles and practices. The authors also added new chapters on cover crops, crop residues, soil water management, nutrient management, perennials in crop rotations and organic amendments. All practices have a clear perspective on addressing soil erosion, physical and chemical problems, carbon dynamics and sequestration as well as non-point source pollution. The restorative nature of many practices, also consider water conservation as a main pillar of sustaining a healthy soil.

This textbook is valuable for students and professionals in soil science, agronomy, agricultural engineering, hydrology, and management of natural resources.

✦ Table of Contents

Preface
Contents
1: Soil and Water Management
1.1 Why Manage Soil?
1.2 Soil Ecosystem Services
1.3 Why Manage Soil Water?
1.4 Soil Management and Population Growth
1.5 Agents That Degrade Soil
1.5.1 Erosion
1.5.1.1 Geologic and Accelerated Erosion
1.5.1.2 History of Soil Erosion
1.5.1.3 Water Erosion
1.5.1.4 Wind Erosion
1.5.1.5 Consequences of Soil Erosion
1.5.1.6 On-Site Consequences
1.5.1.7 Off-Site Consequences
1.5.1.8 What Causes Soil Erosion?
1.5.1.9 Erosion in the USA and the World
1.5.1.10 How Much Soil Loss Is Acceptable?
1.5.2 Tillage Erosion and Soil Loss Due to Crop Harvesting
1.5.3 Soil Compaction
1.5.4 Poor Drainage
1.5.5 Salinization, Sodification, and Acidification
1.5.6 Soil Biological Degradation
1.6 The Need for Soil and Water Management
1.7 Summary
References
2: Water Erosion
2.1 Types
2.1.1 Splash Erosion
2.1.2 Interrill Erosion
2.1.3 Rill Erosion
2.1.4 Gully Erosion
2.1.5 Tunnel Erosion
2.1.6 Streambank Erosion
2.2 Processes of Water Erosion
2.3 Factors of Water Erosion
2.4 Soil Properties Affecting Erodibility
2.4.1 Texture
2.4.2 Structure
2.4.3 Surface Sealing
2.4.4 Aggregate Properties
2.4.4.1 Stability
2.4.4.2 Wettability
2.4.5 Antecedent Soil Water Content
2.4.6 Soil Organic Matter Content
2.4.7 Water Transmission Properties
2.4.7.1 Water Infiltration
2.4.7.2 Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity
2.5 Measuring Erosion
2.6 Agents of Water Erosion
2.6.1 Rainfall Erosivity
2.6.2 Runoff Erosivity
2.7 Estimation of Runoff
2.7.1 Time of Concentration
2.7.2 Surface Roughness
2.7.3 Watershed Slope
2.7.4 Size of the Watershed
2.7.5 Length and Shape of the Channel
2.8 Runoff Volume
2.9 Characteristics of the Hydrologic Groups
2.10 Peak Runoff Rate
2.11 Summary
References
3: Modeling Water Erosion
3.1 Modeling Erosion
3.2 Empirical Models
3.3 Universal Soil Loss Equation
3.3.1 Rainfall and Runoff Erosivity Index
3.3.2 Soil Erodibility Factor (K)
3.3.3 Topographic Factor (LS)
3.3.4 Cover-Management Factor (C)
3.3.5 Support Practice Factor (P)
3.4 Modified USLE
3.5 Revised USLE
3.6 Soil and Water Assessment Tool
3.7 Process-Based Models
3.7.1 Water Erosion Prediction Project
3.7.2 Ephemeral Gully Erosion Model
3.8 Other Water Erosion Models
3.9 Summary
References
4: Wind Erosion
4.1 Processes
4.2 Factors
4.3 Wind Erosivity
4.4 Soil Erodibility
4.4.1 Texture
4.4.2 Crusts
4.4.3 Dry Aggregate Size Distribution
4.4.4 Aggregate Stability
4.4.5 Soil Surface Roughness
4.4.6 Soil Water Content
4.4.7 Wind Affected Area
4.4.8 Surface Cover
4.4.9 Management-Induced Changes
4.5 Measuring Wind Erosion
4.5.1 Efficiency of Sediment Samplers
4.5.2 Types of Sediment Samplers
4.5.3 Wind-Tunnel Method
4.5.4 Point Measurements
4.5.5 Radionuclide Fallouts
4.6 Summary
References
5: Wind Erosion Modeling
5.1 Wind Erosion Modeling
5.2 Wind Erosion Equation
5.2.1 Erodibility Index (I)
5.2.2 Climatic Factor (C)
5.2.3 Soil Ridge Roughness Factor (K)
5.2.4 Vegetative Cover Factor (V)
5.3 Revised WEQ
5.3.1 Weather Factor (WF)
5.3.2 Soil Roughness Factor (K)
5.3.3 Erodible Fraction (EF)
5.3.4 Surface Crust Factor
5.3.5 Combined Crop Factors
5.4 Process-Based Models
5.4.1 Wind Erosion Prediction System
5.4.2 Other Wind Erosion Models
5.4.2.1 Wind Erosion Stochastic Simulator (WESS)
5.4.2.2 Texas Tech Erosion Analysis Model (TEAM)
5.4.2.3 Wind Erosion Assessment Model (WEAM)
5.4.2.4 Wind Erosion and European Light Soils (WEELS)
5.4.2.5 Dust Production Model (DPM)
5.5 Summary
References
6: Tillage Erosion
6.1 Extent of Tillage Erosion
6.2 Tillage Erosion Versus Water and Wind Erosion
6.3 Factors Affecting Tillage Erosion
6.3.1 Landform Erodibility
6.3.2 Soil Erodibility
6.3.3 Tillage Erosivity
6.3.3.1 Tillage Depth
6.3.3.2 Tillage Implement
6.3.3.3 Tillage Direction
6.3.3.4 Tillage Speed and Passes
6.4 Tillage Erosion and Soil Properties
6.5 Indicators of Tillage Erosion
6.5.1 Changes in Surface Elevation
6.5.2 Activity of Radionuclides
6.5.3 Measurement of Soil Displacement
6.6 Tillage Erosion and Crop Production
6.7 Tillage Erosion Modeling
6.7.1 Predictive Equations
6.7.2 Computer Models
6.7.2.1 Tillage Erosion Prediction (TEP) Model
6.7.2.2 Water and Tillage Erosion Model (WaTEM)
6.7.2.3 Water- and Tillage-Induced Soil Redistribution (SPEROS)
6.8 Management of Tillage Erosion
6.8.1 Slope Stabilization
6.8.2 Management of Tillage Operations
6.9 Soil Erosion and Crop Harvesting
6.10 Summary
References
7: Tillage Systems
7.1 Tillage
7.2 Tillage Tools
7.3 Types of Tillage Systems
7.4 Conventional Tillage
7.4.1 Crop Residues
7.4.2 Soil Properties
7.4.3 Soil Compaction
7.5 Conservation Tillage Systems
7.5.1 No-Till Farming
7.5.1.1 No-Till in the Americas
7.5.1.2 No-Till in Europe
7.5.1.3 No-Till in Africa and Asia
7.5.1.4 No-Till in Australia and New Zealand
7.5.1.5 Ecosystem Services from No-Till as Compared with Other Tillage Systems
7.5.1.6 Soil Properties
7.5.1.7 Soil Water
7.5.1.8 Soil Temperature
7.5.1.9 Soil Biota
7.5.1.10 Losses of Soil, Water, and Nutrients
7.5.1.11 Some Challenges in No-Till Management
7.5.1.12 Variable Crop Yields
7.5.1.13 Increased Potential for Leaching and Pollutant Runoff
7.5.1.14 Strategic Tillage
7.5.2 Reduced Tillage
7.5.2.1 Mulch Tillage
7.5.2.2 Ridge Tillage
7.5.2.3 Strip Tillage
7.5.2.4 Vertical Tillage
7.6 Summary
References
8: Cropping Systems
8.1 Fallow Systems
8.2 Monoculture
8.3 Crop Rotations
8.3.1 Soil Properties and Erosion
8.3.2 Nutrient Input and Cycling
8.3.3 Pesticide Use
8.3.4 Crop Yields
8.3.5 Selection of Crops for Rotations
8.4 Cropping Intensity
8.5 Row Crops
8.6 Multiple Cropping
8.7 Double Cropping
8.8 Relay Cropping
8.9 Intercropping or Mixed Cropping
8.10 Contour Farming
8.11 Strip Cropping
8.12 Contour Strip Cropping
8.13 Land Equivalent Ratio
8.14 Organic Farming
8.14.1 Definition
8.14.2 Background
8.14.3 Importance
8.14.3.1 Erosion and Water Quality
8.14.3.2 Soil Properties
8.14.3.3 Crop Yields
8.14.4 Organic No-Till Farming
8.15 Summary
References
9: Crop Residue Management
9.1 Production of Crop Residues
9.2 Crop Residues
9.3 Soil Properties
9.3.1 Structure
9.3.2 Compaction
9.3.3 Water
9.3.4 Temperature
9.3.5 Fertility
9.3.6 Biological Properties
9.4 Wind Erosion
9.5 Water Erosion
9.6 Crop Production
9.7 Residue Grazing by Livestock
9.8 Threshold Level of Residue Removal for Expanded Uses
9.9 Increasing Crop Residue Amount
9.10 Measurement of Crop Residue Cover
9.11 Measurement of Crop Residue Amount and Harvest Index
9.12 Root Biomass Production
9.13 Summary
References
10: Cover Crops
10.1 Components of Cropping Systems
10.2 Biomass Production
10.3 Mixes
10.4 Weed Management
10.5 Water Erosion and Water Quality
10.6 Wind Erosion
10.7 Soil Compaction
10.8 Soil Structure, Hydraulic Properties, and Temperature
10.9 Soil Fertility
10.9.1 Nutrient Recycling
10.9.2 Nitrogen Fixation
10.10 Soil Carbon and Biology
10.11 Soil Water Management
10.12 Crop Yields
10.13 Grazing and Harvesting Cover Crops
10.14 Cover Crops and Crop Residue Removal
10.15 Goals for Establishing Cover Crops
10.16 Management of Cover Crops
10.17 Summary
References
11: Perennial Plants and Soil Management
11.1 Perennial Plants: Mimicking Nature to Manage Soils
11.2 Conservation Buffers
11.2.1 Multi-Functionality of Conservation Buffers
11.2.2 Riparian Buffer Strips
11.2.3 Filter Strips
11.2.4 Grass Barriers
11.2.5 Contour Buffer Strips
11.2.6 Grass Waterways
11.2.7 Field Borders
11.2.8 Windbreaks
11.2.9 Intercropping Crops with Trees: Alley Cropping
11.2.9.1 Benefits of Alley Cropping
11.2.9.2 Design and Management of Alley Cropping Systems
11.3 Growing Dedicated Energy Crops in Marginal Croplands
11.4 Perennials in Rotation with Food Crops
11.5 Summary
References
12: Soil Amendments
12.1 Classification
12.2 Specificity
12.3 Animal Manure
12.3.1 Soil Properties
12.3.2 Soil Erosion
12.3.3 Manure Management
12.4 Biochar
12.4.1 Soil and Crop Benefits of Biochar
12.4.2 Soil Properties
12.4.3 Nutrient Cycling
12.4.4 Crop Yields
12.4.5 Factors Affecting Biochar Benefits
12.5 Soil Conditioners
12.6 Polyacrylamides
12.6.1 Soil Properties
12.6.2 Water Erosion and Quality
12.6.3 Crop Production
12.6.4 Factors Affecting Performance of Polyacrylamides
12.6.5 Soil Characteristics
12.6.6 Polyacrylamide Characteristics
12.6.7 Soil Management
12.6.8 Longevity of Polyacrylamides and Cost-Effectiveness
12.7 Summary
References
13: Mechanical Structures and Engineering Techniques
13.1 Types of Structures
13.1.1 Contour Bunds
13.1.2 Silt Fences
13.1.3 Surface Mats
13.1.4 Lining Measures
13.2 Farm Ponds
13.2.1 Groundwater-Fed Ponds
13.2.2 Stream- or Spring-Fed Ponds
13.2.3 Off-Stream Ponds
13.2.4 Rain-Fed Ponds
13.2.5 Design and Installation of Ponds
13.3 Terraces
13.3.1 Functions of Terraces
13.3.2 Types of Terraces
13.3.3 Design of Terraces
13.3.4 Management and Maintenance of Terraces
13.4 Gully Erosion Control Structures
13.4.1 Types of Gully Erosion Control Structures
13.4.1.1 Gabions
13.4.1.2 Chute Spillways
13.4.1.3 Pipe Spillways
13.4.1.4 Drop Structure
13.4.2 Maintenance of Gully Erosion Control Practices
13.5 Mechanical Structures and Biological Techniques
13.6 Summary
References
14: Restoration and Management of Degraded Soils
14.1 Management of Degraded Soils
14.2 Eroded or Erosion-Prone Soils
14.3 Nutrient-Depleted Soils
14.4 Compacted Soils
14.5 Management of Soil Compaction
14.5.1 Controlling Traffic
14.5.2 Adding Organic Amendments
14.5.3 Growing Deep-Rooted Crops
14.5.4 Subsoiling
14.5.5 Considering Tillage Passes, Soil Wetness, and Field Equipment
14.5.6 Using One-Time Tillage
14.6 Acid Soils
14.7 Saline, Saline-Sodic, and Sodic Soils
14.7.1 Causes of Salinization and Sodification
14.7.2 Impacts of Salinization and Sodification on Soil Properties
14.7.3 Management of Saline and Sodic Soils
14.7.3.1 Leaching
14.7.3.2 Increasing Soil Water Content
14.7.3.3 Use of Salt-Tolerant Crop Varieties
14.7.4 Use of Salt-Tolerant Trees and Grasses
14.7.5 Establishment of Drainage Systems
14.7.6 Tillage Practices: Subsoiling
14.7.7 Addition of Amendments
14.7.8 Application of Gypsum
14.7.9 Other Techniques
14.8 Mined Soils
14.8.1 Restoration of Mined Soils
14.8.2 Restoration Practices
14.8.3 Restoration Indicators
14.9 Summary
References
15: Soil Fertility Management
15.1 Management of Essential Nutrients
15.2 Soil Properties and Nutrient Dynamics
15.2.1 Particle-Size Distribution
15.2.2 Specific Surface Area
15.2.3 Bulk Density and Porosity
15.2.4 Hydraulic Conductivity
15.2.5 Water Infiltration
15.2.6 Aggregate Stability
15.2.7 Organic Matter
15.2.8 Temperature
15.2.9 Clay Mineralogy
15.2.10 Cation Exchange Capacity
15.2.11 Anion Exchange Capacity
15.3 Soil-Water-Nutrient-Root Interrelationships
15.4 Mobility and Solubility of Nutrients
15.5 pH and Base Saturation
15.6 Buffering Capacity
15.7 Nitrogen and Phosphorus Cycles
15.8 Nutrient Management Plan
15.8.1 Soil Sampling for Nutrient Analysis
15.8.2 Nutrient Recommendation
15.8.3 Nutrient Application
15.9 Precision Agriculture
15.10 Managing Soils to Enhance Soil Fertility
15.11 Summary
References
16: Nutrient Erosion and Hypoxia of Aquatic Ecosystems
16.1 Water Quality
16.2 Eutrophication
16.3 Non-Point Source Pollution and Runoff
16.4 Factors Affecting Non-Point Source Pollution
16.5 Pollutant Sources
16.6 Common Pollutants
16.6.1 Sediment
16.6.2 Nitrogen
16.6.3 Phosphorus
16.6.4 Animal Manure
16.6.5 Pesticides
16.7 Pathways of Pollutant Transport
16.7.1 Runoff and Lateral Flow
16.7.2 Leaching
16.7.3 Volatilization
16.8 Hypoxia of Coastal Waters
16.9 Wetlands and Pollution
16.9.1 Degradation of Wetlands
16.9.2 Restoration of Wetlands
16.10 Mitigating Non-Point Source Pollution and Hypoxia
16.10.1 Management of Chemical Inputs
16.10.2 Management Practices
16.11 Models of Non-Point Source Pollution
16.12 Summary
References
17: Soil Water Management
17.1 Understanding Water Balance
17.2 Water Potential
17.3 Measurement of Soil Water
17.3.1 Water Content
17.3.2 Water Potential
17.4 Soil Properties and Soil Water Dynamics
17.5 Soil Organic C and Water Retention
17.6 Drought Management Strategies
17.7 Conservation Tillage and Water Conservation
17.7.1 Soil Water Content
17.7.2 Water Infiltration
17.7.3 Water Use Efficiency
17.8 Cropping Systems and Water Conservation
17.9 Crop Residues and Water Conservation
17.10 Terraces and Farm Ponds
17.11 Conservation Buffers
17.12 Management of Irrigation Water
17.12.1 Irrigation Systems
17.12.1.1 Surface Irrigation
17.12.1.2 Sprinkler Irrigation
17.12.1.3 Drip Irrigation
17.12.2 Impacts of Irrigation on Soil Properties
17.13 Summary
References
18: Management of Grazing Lands
18.1 Rangeland Systems
18.2 Pastureland Systems
18.3 Degradation of Grazing Lands
18.3.1 Rangelands
18.3.2 Pasturelands
18.4 Grazing Impacts on Soil Erosion
18.5 Grazing and Soil Properties
18.5.1 Temperature and Water Content
18.5.2 Particle-Size Distribution
18.5.3 Structure and Water Infiltration
18.5.4 Compaction
18.5.5 Organic Matter
18.6 Grazing and Plant Growth
18.7 Benefits of Well-Managed Grazing Lands for Soil Protection and Stabilization
18.7.1 Protection of the Soil Surface
18.7.2 Stabilization of Soil Matrix
18.8 Grass Roots and Soil Erodibility
18.9 Grazing of Conservation Buffers
18.10 Methods of Grazing
18.11 Management of Grazing Lands
18.12 Prescribed Fire as a Management Tool
18.13 Resilience and Recovery of Grazed Lands
18.14 Conversion of Grazing Lands to Croplands
18.15 Conversion of Croplands to Permanent Vegetation
18.16 Restoration of Degraded Grazing Lands
18.17 Modeling of Grazing Land Management
18.18 Summary
References
19: Soil Management and Carbon Dynamics
19.1 Importance of Soil Organic Carbon
19.2 Soil Organic Carbon Balance
19.3 Soil Erosion and Organic Carbon Dynamics
19.3.1 Aggregate Disintegration
19.3.2 Preferential Removal of Carbon
19.3.3 Redistribution of Carbon Transported by Erosion
19.3.4 Mineralization of Soil Organic Matter
19.3.5 Deposition and Burial of Carbon Transported by Erosion
19.4 Fate of the Carbon Transported by Erosion
19.5 Carbon Transported by Erosion: Source or Sink for Atmospheric CO2
19.6 Tillage Erosion and Soil Carbon
19.7 Management Practices and Soil Organic Carbon Dynamics
19.7.1 No-Till and Carbon Sequestration
19.7.1.1 Stratification of Soil Carbon
19.7.1.2 Site-Specificity of Carbon Sequestration
19.7.2 Intensified Crop Rotations
19.7.3 Cover Crops
19.7.4 Crop Residues
19.7.5 Animal Manure
19.7.6 Agroforestry
19.7.7 Organic Farming
19.7.8 Bioenergy Crops
19.7.9 Reclaimed Lands
19.7.10 Biochar
19.8 Measurement of the Soil Carbon Pool
19.8.1 Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy (IRS)
19.8.2 Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS)
19.8.3 Inelastic Neutron Scattering (INS)
19.8.4 Remote Sensing
19.9 Soil Management and Carbon Emissions
19.10 Modeling Soil Carbon Dynamics
19.11 Soil Management and Carbon Credits
19.12 Summary
References
20: One Health
20.1 Soil Health
20.2 Soil Health Paradigm
20.3 One Health
20.3.1 Plant Heath
20.3.2 Animal Health
20.3.3 Human Health
20.3.4 Ecosystem Health
20.4 Conceptual Definition and Assessment Approaches
20.5 Indicators of Soil Health
20.5.1 Soil Physical Health
20.5.2 Soil Chemical Health
20.5.3 Soil Biological Health
20.5.4 Factors and Soil Property Interactions
20.5.5 Crop Yield
20.5.6 Selection of Soil Properties
20.6 Soil Health Index
20.6.1 Farmer-Based Soil Health Assessment Approach
20.6.2 Soil Management Assessment Framework (SMAF)
20.6.3 Comprehensive Assessment of Soil Health (CASH)
20.7 Emerging Assessment Techniques
20.8 Soil Health and Erosion Relationships
20.8.1 Soil Erosion and Profile Depth
20.8.2 Soil Physical Properties
20.8.3 Soil Chemical and Biological Properties
20.9 Managing Soil Health
20.9.1 Reducing Soil Disturbance
20.9.2 Providing Armor
20.9.3 Intensifying Cropping Systems
20.9.4 Promoting Permanent Vegetative Cover
20.9.5 Integrating Crops with Livestock
20.10 Summary
References
21: Soil Resilience
21.1 Concept of Soil Resilience
21.2 Importance
21.3 Classification of Soil Resilience
21.4 Soil Disturbance Factors
21.5 Factors that Affect Soil Resilience
21.5.1 Parent Material
21.5.2 Climate
21.5.3 Biota
21.5.3.1 Flora
21.5.3.2 Fauna
21.5.4 Anthropogenic Influence
21.5.5 Topography
21.5.6 Time
21.6 Soil Processes and Resilience
21.7 Resilience of Soil Properties
21.7.1 Soil Physical Resilience
21.7.2 Soil Chemical and Biological Resilience
21.8 Soil Resilience and Chemical Contamination
21.9 Measurement of Soil Resilience
21.10 Modeling
21.11 Managing Soil Resilience
21.12 Summary
References
22: Food, Water, and Climate
22.1 Soil as a Centerpiece
22.2 Soils and Water Security
22.3 Soils and Food Security
22.3.1 Soil Erosion and Crop Yields
22.3.2 Soil Type, Climate, and Crop Type
22.3.3 Erosion-Induced Changes in Soil Properties
22.3.3.1 Physical Hindrance
22.3.3.2 Compaction and Available Water
22.3.3.3 Soil Organic Matter and Nutrient Reserves
22.3.4 Methods of Assessment of Crop Response to Erosion
22.3.4.1 Natural Soil Erosion
22.3.4.2 Artificial Removal of Topsoil
22.3.4.3 Artificial Addition of Topsoil
22.3.5 Modeling Erosion-Yield Relationships
22.4 Climate Security
22.4.1 Climate Impacts
22.4.2 Soil Formation and Processes
22.4.3 Soil Properties
22.4.3.1 Soil Temperature and Water Content
22.4.3.2 Structural Properties
22.4.3.3 Soil Biology
22.4.3.4 Soil Organic Carbon
22.4.4 Crop Production
22.4.4.1 Positive Effects
22.4.4.2 Negative Effects
22.5 Modeling of Extreme Weather Impacts
22.6 Adapting to Fluctuating Climates
22.7 Summary
References
23: The Way Forward
23.1 Strategies for Managing and Conserving Soil and Water
23.2 Embracing a Multidisciplinary Approach
23.3 Policy Imperatives for Managing and Conserving Soil and Water
23.4 Specific Priorities
23.4.1 Securing Food Production
23.4.2 Expanding Conservation Agriculture
23.4.3 Managing Crop Residues
23.4.4 Adopting Cover Crops
23.4.5 Establishing Conservation Buffers
23.4.6 Integrating Perennials with Crops: Alley Cropping
23.4.7 Managing Tillage Erosion
23.4.8 Considering Organic Farming
23.4.9 Adding Biochar
23.4.10 Enhancing Soil Health and Resilience
23.4.11 Sequestering Soil Carbon
23.4.12 Modeling Soil Ecosystem Services
23.4.13 Adapting to Extreme Weather Events
23.5 Soil Management and Conservation Challenges
23.6 Summary
References
Appendices
Appendix A Abbreviations of Some of the Words Frequently Used in the Textbook
Appendix B Common and Scientific Names of Plants Used in the Textbook
Index