In the 19605, educators asked why Johnny couldn't read. In the 19705, the question was extended to writing and mathematics skills. Educators, administrators, and government policymaken responded to these questions by developing national goals and standards: new expectations for our academic institutions and educational systems (National Education Goals Panel, 1992). Also, assessment. the method through which the goals and standards are evaluated, became a popular topic on college campuses and at professional conferences (American Association of Higher Education Assessment Forum, 1992).
Consistent with these trends to document learning outcomes, the original question about Johnny's basic skills was extended to include, "Why can't students speak and listen with competence?" Appropriately, communication professi-onals have demonstrated increasing concern for communication education in higher education during the past twenty years (Chesebro, 1991). The ability to communicate effectively is now recognized as pivotal to personal satisfaction, academic achievement, and professional success.
We begin this chapter by exploring why speech communication and listening are essential competencies for college graduates. We then describe the nature of communication competence for college students. Next, we outline basic slulls necessary for communicating in different situations or contexts. We list some nationally recognized persuading, informing, and relating skills, including both basic and advanced skills for college graduates. We then conclude with a discussion of effective methods for providing instruction in speaking and listening and for assessing students' skills. NEW DlPECTlONS FOR HICHEI EDUCATION. no. 96. Winter 1996 O ~-B a s s Publkhcrs 19 20 SElTlNG EXPECTATIONS FOR STUDENT LEARNING
The Importance of Communication
Oral communication competency is essential to a happy and productive life.
In fact, oral communication shlls make our species unique. It is thmugh communication that we develop and define our sense of self, interact with the environment, and regulate our interactions with others at home, at school, and at work. But our skills are not what they should be. Consider that more than 25 percent of young people (ages eighteen to twenty-four) cannot perform basic communication tasks such as giving clear oral directions (Vangelisti and Daly, 1989). Almost 95 percent of the population reports some degree of anxiety about communicating with another person or in groups (kchmond and McCroskey, 1995). Adults listen at a 25 percent level of efficiency (Berko, Wolvin, and Wolvin, 1995). Most employees show a significant lack of effective speaking and listening skills (DiSalvo, 1980;Hanna, 1978; Henry and kchmond, 1982). The Centrality of Talk. Communication is central to our society. Furthermore, it is essential for academic and professional success. Students write about a book a year and read about a book a month, but they listen as much as a book a day and speak as much as a book a week (Buckley, 1992). Because speaking and listening are integral to students' academic and personal lives, regulating boards and accrediting agencies are mandating that communication skills be included in higher education curricula. They, too, agree that oral communication is central to our society and its economy.
Communication and Academic and Professional Success. A n array of academic studies and other surveys substantively support McCloskey's suggestion that national efforts be taken to make "talk" central (1994). Competency in speahng and listening repeatedly have been identified as prerequisites to success in school, in the workplace, and in life in general.
Communication skills developed and polished in college are equally important for effective participation in the work world. In many studies and surveys, employers have identified communication abilities as essential for successful work situations (see, for example, Curtis, Winsor, and Stephens. 1989; DiSalvo, Larsen, and Seiler, 1976).
A variety of communication skills also are evident in What Work Requires of Schools: A SCANS Reportfor America 2000 (U.S. Department of bbor. 1993). This report identified competencies, skills, and qualities needed for solid job performance. Included in the competencies are interpersonal skills, worlung on teams, teaching others, leading, negotiating, problem solving, and worlung well with people from culturally diverse backgrounds. Also included on the list of foundational or important basic skills for effective workers were speaking and listening.
Lastly, several recent surveys and documents also call attention to the importance of communication in education (Berko, 1996). "Given the Circumstances: Teachers Talk About Public Education Today" is a recent study conducted by the Public Agenda Foundation that found that 83 percent of teachers surveyed and 88 percent of the general public felt that students