Sensors for Mechatronics
Copyright
Preface for the second edition
Preface for the first edition
1 Introduction
1.1 Sensors in mechatronics
1.1.1 Definitions
1.1.2 Sensor development
1.1.3 Sensor nomenclature
1.1.4 Sensors and information
1.1.4.1 Binary sensors
1.1.4.2 Analogue sensors
1.1.4.3 Image sensors
1.1.4.4 Optical imaging
1.1.4.5 Acoustic imaging
1.1.4.6 Tactile imaging
1.2 Selection of sensors
1.3 Embedded sensing
1.3.1 Interfacing, conditioning, processing
1.3.2 Platform for illustration
1.3.3 Embedded control architecture
1.3.4 Developing applications
References
Further reading
Introductory Books on Sensors and Mechatronics
Books on Semiconductor Sensors
Books on Processing and Arduino
2 Sensor fundamentals
2.1 Physical quantities
2.1.1 Classification of quantities
2.1.2 Relations between quantities
2.2 Sensor classifications
2.2.1 Classification based on measurand and application field
2.2.2 Classification based on port models
2.2.3 Classification based on conversion principles
2.2.4 Classification according to energy domain
References
Further reading
Some books and articles on quantities and systems
3 Uncertainty aspects
3.1 Sensor specification
3.1.1 Sensitivity
3.1.2 Nonlinearity and hysteresis
3.1.3 Resolution
3.1.4 Accuracy
3.1.5 Offset and zero drift
3.1.6 Noise
3.1.7 Response time
3.1.8 Frequency response and bandwidth
3.1.9 Operating conditions
3.2 Sensor error reduction techniques
3.2.1 Compensation
3.2.2 Feedback methods
3.2.3 Filtering
3.2.3.1 Filtering prior to transduction
3.2.3.2 Filtering after transduction
3.2.4 Modulation
3.2.4.1 Multiplier as modulator
3.2.4.2 Switch modulator
3.2.4.3 Measurement bridge as modulator
3.2.5 Demodulation
3.2.6 Correction methods
References
Further reading
4 Resistive sensors
4.1 Resistivity and resistance
4.2 Potentiometric sensors
4.2.1 Construction and general properties
4.2.2 Electrical characteristics
4.2.3 Interfacing
4.2.4 Contact-free potentiometers
4.2.5 Applications of potentiometers
4.3 Strain gauges
4.3.1 Construction and properties
4.3.2 Interfacing of strain gauges
4.3.3 Applications of strain gauges
4.4 Piezoresistive sensors
4.4.1 Piezoresistivity
4.4.2 Silicon piezoresistive sensors
4.4.3 Piezoresistive elastomers
4.4.4 Applications of piezoresistive sensors
4.4.4.1 Tactile sensors
4.4.4.2 Touch sensors
4.4.4.3 Touch screens
4.4.5 Interfacing piezoresistive sensors
4.5 Magnetoresistive sensors
4.5.1 Magnetoresistivity
4.5.2 Applications of magnetoresistive sensors
4.6 Thermoresistive sensors
4.6.1 Thermoresistivity
4.6.2 Resistance thermometer
4.6.3 Thermistors
4.7 Optoresistive sensors
References
Further reading
Books and reviews on magnetoresistive sensors and applications
Books and review articles on tactile sensors
5 Capacitive sensors
5.1 Capacitance and permittivity
5.2 Basic configurations of capacitive sensors
5.2.1 Flat-plate capacitive sensors
5.2.2 Multiplate capacitive sensors
5.2.3 Silicon capacitive sensors
5.2.3.1 Silicon pressure sensors
5.2.3.2 Silicon accelerometers
5.3 Interfacing
5.3.1 Interfacing with analog circuits
5.3.2 Interfacing to embedded systems
5.4 Applications
5.4.1 Capacitive sensors for position- and force-related quantities
5.4.2 Sensing applications using internal capacitances
5.4.3 Sensing applications using external capacitances
References
Further reading
6 Inductive and magnetic sensors
6.1 Magnetic and electromagnetic quantities
6.1.1 Magnetic field strength, magnetic induction and flux
6.1.2 Permeability
6.1.3 Eddy currents
6.1.4 Magnetic resistance (reluctance) and self-inductance
6.1.5 Magnetostriction
6.2 Magnetic field sensors
6.2.1 Coil
6.2.2 Hall plate sensors
6.2.3 Fluxgate sensors
6.3 Magnetic- and induction-based displacement and force sensors
6.3.1 Magnetic proximity switches
6.3.2 Inductive proximity and displacement sensors
6.3.3 Eddy current displacement sensors
6.3.4 Variable differential transformers
6.3.5 Resolvers and synchros
6.3.6 Magnetostrictive or elastomagnetic sensors
6.4 Interfacing
6.4.1 Interfacing inductive sensors
6.4.2 Interfacing to embedded systems
6.5 Applications
6.5.1 Contact-free sensing using magnetic and inductive sensors
6.5.2 Applications of variable reluctance and eddy current sensors
6.5.2.1 Angular displacement
6.5.2.2 Linear displacement and velocity
6.5.2.3 Nondestructive testing and material characterization
6.5.3 Applications of other inductive sensors
References
Further reading
Books
Review Papers
7 Optical sensors
7.1 Electro-optical components
7.1.1 Light emitters
7.1.2 Light sensors
7.1.3 Position sensitive diode
7.2 Optical displacement sensors
7.2.1 Intensity measurement
7.2.2 Triangulation
7.2.3 Optical encoders
7.2.4 Interferometry
7.2.5 Time-of-flight
7.3 Interfacing
7.3.1 Light-emitting diodes and photodiodes
7.3.2 Interfacing position sensitive diodes
7.3.3 Interfacing optical sensors to embedded systems
7.4 Applications
7.4.1 Linear displacement sensing
7.4.1.1 Linear distance
7.4.1.2 Surface properties: roughness, flatness, thickness
7.4.1.3 Linear velocity and acceleration
7.4.2 Angular displacement sensing
7.4.3 Force, torque, and strain sensing
7.4.4 Object tracking
7.4.5 Object shape
7.4.6 Navigation
References
Further reading
8 Piezoelectric sensors
8.1 Piezoelectricity
8.1.1 Piezoelectric materials
8.1.2 Piezoelectric parameters
8.2 Force, pressure, and acceleration sensors
8.2.1 Construction
8.2.2 Characteristics of accelerometers
8.3 Interfacing
8.4 Applications
8.4.1 Stress and pressure
8.4.2 Acceleration
8.4.3 Tactile sensors
References
Further reading
Some Books and Articles on Piezoelectric Materials, Sensors, and Applications
9 Acoustic sensors
9.1 Properties of the acoustic medium
9.1.1 Sound intensity and pressure
9.1.2 Sound propagation speed
9.1.3 Acoustic damping
9.1.4 Acoustic impedance
9.2 Acoustic sensors
9.2.1 General properties
9.2.2 Electrostatic transducers
9.2.3 Piezoelectric transducers
9.2.4 Arrays
9.3 Measurement methods
9.3.1 Burst
9.3.2 Continuous sine wave (CW)
9.3.3 Frequency-modulated continuous waves (FMCW)
9.3.4 Other signal types
9.4 Applications
9.4.1 Navigation
9.4.1.1 General
9.4.1.2 Navigation for mobile robots
9.4.1.3 Navigation tool for visually impaired persons
9.4.1.4 Localization of tools
9.4.2 Inspection
9.4.2.1 General
9.4.2.2 Acoustic imaging
9.4.2.3 NDT and material properties
9.4.2.4 Production and process control
9.4.2.5 Tactile sensors
9.4.3 Interfacing acoustic sensors to embedded systems
9.4.4 Conclusion
References
Further reading
Appendix A Symbols and notations
A.1 The electrical domain
A.2 The thermal domain
A.3 The mechanical domain
A.4 The optical domain
A.4.1 Optical quantities
A.4.2 Radiant energy from a unit surface with Lambertian emission
A.4.3 Derivation of relations between intensity and distance
Appendix B Relations between quantities
B.1 Generalized equations
B.2 Application to four domains
B.3 Heckmann diagrams
Appendix C Basic interface circuits
C.1 Operational amplifier
C.2 Current-to-voltage converter
C.3 Noninverting amplifier
C.4 Inverting amplifier
C.5 Comparator and schmitttrigger
C.5.1 Comparator
C.5.2 Schmitttrigger
C.6 Integrator and differentiator
C.6.1 Integrator
C.6.2 Differentiator
C.7 Filters
Appendix D Practical guideline and code examples
D.1 Introduction
D.2 The analog to digital converter on Arduino
D.2.1 Arduino code example
D.2.2 Processing code example
D.3 Capacitive sensing
D.3.1 Direct capacitive reading
D.3.2 Capacitive sensing using an external library
D.4 Magnetic sensing
D.4.1 Arduino oscilloscope sketch
D.4.2 Processing oscilloscope sketch
D.5 Optical sensing
D.5.1 Sample timer approach
D.5.2 External interrupt
D.5.3 External interrupt, full quadrature
D.5.4 Linear gray encoder
D.6 Further reading
Index