Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
Exploration Seismic
1 Seismic Wave and Rock-Fluid Properties
Abstract
Seismic Wave and Propagation
Energy Losses
Absorption
Scattering
Transmission
Spherical (Geometrical) Divergence
Geological Significance of Energy Attenuation
Seismic Properties
Rock-Fluid Properties
Seismic Rock Physics and Petrophysics
Rock Microstructure
Physical Properties of Rocks
Elasticity and Elastic Constants
Bulk Density
Porosity, Pore Size and Shapes (Pore Geometry)
Texture
Fractures and Cracks, Geometry
Anisotropy
Fluid Properties of Rocks
Pore Fluid and Saturation
Gassmann’s Equations
Permeability
Viscosity
Pressure
Normal Pressures (Hydrostatic Pressure)
Abnormal Pressures
Overpressures
Underpressures or Subnormal Pressures
Temperature
Seismic Rock Physics Modelling (RPM)
Mechanical Properties of Rocks, Geomechanics
Young’s Modulus
Poisson’s Ratio
In Situ Stress
Mechanical Earth Modelling (MEM)
Limitations of Modelling
References
2 Seismic Reflection Principles—Basics
Abstract
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (S/N)
Seismic Resolution
Vertical Resolution
Lateral (Spatial) Resolution and Fresnel Zone, Migration
Migration
Interference of Closely Spaced Reflections; Types of Reflectors
Discrete Reflectors
Transitional Reflectors
Complex Reflectors
Innate Attributes of a Reflection Signal
Amplitude and Strength
Phase
Frequency (Bandwidth)
Polarity
Polarity Display Conventions, Acquisition Source Wavelet
Arrival Time (Onset of Reflection)
Velocity
Average Velocity
Stacking Velocity
RMS Velocity
Migration Velocity
Interval Velocity (Vint)
Instantaneous Velocity (Vinst)
Seismic Display
Display Modes
Plotting Scales (Vertical and Horizontal)
References
3 Seismic Interpretation Methods
Abstract
Category I: Structural Interpretation (2D)
Identification of Horizons and Correlation
Identification of Horizons
Correlation of Horizons
Contouring and Maps
Time Structure Maps
Depth Maps or Structure Maps
Relief Maps
Isochrones/Isopachs
Paleo-Structural Analysis
Category II: Stratigraphic Interpretation (2D)
Seismic Calibration
Overlaying Log Curves on Seismic
Continuous Velocity Logs (CVL)
Synthetic Seismogram
Vertical Seismic Profiling (VSP)
Depth Conversion
Velocity Modelling
Case Example
Interval Velocity for Evaluation of Rock Properties
Seismic Structure Maps
Contouring Example
Seismogeological Section
Category III: Seismic Stratigraphy Interpretation
Category IV: Seismic Sequence Stratigraphy Interpretation
Low Stand Systems Tract (LST)
Transgressive Systems Tract (TST)
High Stand Systems Tract (HST)
Application of Seismic Sequence Stratigraphy
Seismic Stratigraphy and Stratigraphic Interpretation
References
4 Tectonics and Seismic Interpretation
Abstract
Structures Associated with Extensional Stress Regimes
Compaction/Drape Folds
Horsts and Grabens
Normal Faults, Types and Compaction Faults
Normal Faults
Compaction Faults
Listric and Growth Faults and Roll-Over Structures
Cylindrical Faults and Associated Toe Thrusts, Imbricates
Structures Associated with Compressional Stress Regimes
Folds
Reverse Faults, Thrusts & Overthrusts
Structures Associated with Shear Stress (Wrench) Regimes
En Echelon Conical Folds
Half Grabens with High-Angle Faults
Flower Structures and Inversions
Strike-Slip Faults
Salt/Shale Structures
Salt Diapirs—Types
References
5 Seismic Stratigraphy and Seismo-Tectonics in Petroleum Exploration
Abstract
Basin Evaluation
Source and Generation Potential
Reservoir Facies
Migration, Pathways and Timing
Primary Migration
Secondary Migration
Migration Pathways
Migration Timing
Entrapment and Preservation
Entrapment
Preservation
Basin and Petroleum System Modelling (BPSM)
Petroleum System Modelling (PSM)
Geochemical Evaluation of Source and Generation Potential
TOC and kerogen
Thermal Maturity
Limitations of Petroleum System Modelling
Fault Attributes Analysis and Fault Seal Integrity
Faults as Conduits
Faults as Seals
Fault Seal Integrity
Prospect Generation and Evaluation
Techno- Economic Analysis
Technical (Geologic) Risk Assessment
Type of Source
Migration Timing and Pathways
Type of Reservoir (Clastic/carbonate)
Type of Trap
Estimate of Hydrocarbon In-Place (Volumetric)
References
6 Direct Hydrocarbon Indicators (DHI)
Abstract
DHI Amplitude Anomalies
‘Bright Spot’
‘Dim Spot’
‘Flat Spot’
Supporting Evidence for DHI Anomalies
Validation of DHI Anomalies
Angle Stack Amplitudes, Near- and Far- Stacks for Validation
Delineation and Characterization of Hydrocarbon Sands
Case Example
Limitations of DHI
References
7 Borehole Seismic Techniques
Abstract
Check-Shot Survey
Acquisition Layouts and Energy Source
The T-D Curve (Velocity Function)
Benefits of Check-Shot Surveys
Vertical Seismic Profiling (VSP)
Zero Offset VSP (ZVSP)
Source Wavelet Recording and Benefits for Seismic Data Processing
Corridor Stack
Prediction ahead of Drill Bit
Offset (Non-zero) VSP
Walkaway VSP
Benefits of VSP
Check-Shot and VSP Survey Comparison
Well (Seismic) Velocity and Sonic Velocity Dissimilarities
Sonic Drift Correction
Limitations of Check-Shot and VSP Surveys
Cross-Well (Borehole) Survey
Traveltime Tomography
Reflection Tomography
Tomography Applications
Microseismic Surveys
Monitoring ‘Fracking’
Limitations
References
Reservoir and Production Seismic
8 Evaluation of High-Resolution 3D and 4D Seismic Data
Abstract
3D High Resolution Seismic
Data Acquisition
Prestack Time and Depth Migration (PSTM/PSDM)
Prestack Migration (PSTM)
Prestack Depth Migration (PSDM)
PSDM Limitations
Case Example
3D Seismic Interpretation and Evaluation Techniques
Horizontal-View Seismic
Horizontal-View Amplitude Slices
Time Slice (Horizontal)
Horizon Slice
Stratal Slice
Window-Based Amplitude
Horizontal-View Seismic for Sequence Stratigraphy Interpretation (SSSI)
SSSI Framework: Horizon Cube
SSSI Framework: Wheeler Domain
3D Volume Interpretation and Visualization
3D Seismic Applications
Pore Pressure Prediction
Offshore Shallow Drilling Hazards Prediction
Reservoir Delineation and Characterisation
Reservoir Delineation
Seismic-Well Tie and Horizon Correlation
Depth Maps
Reservoir Characterisation
Porosity
Shaliness
Permeability
Fluid Saturation
Reservoir Heterogeneity
4D (Production Seismic)
Seismic Reservoir Monitoring (SRM)
Dynamic Reservoir Characterisation
Reservoir Drive Types, Water/gas Coning and Gas Phase Formation—4D Indicators
Reservoir Drive Types
4D Indicators—Drive Mechanisms, Coning and Gas Phase Formation
Detection of Bypassed Hydrocarbon (Oil)
Permeability Barriers and High Permeable Paths
Secondary and Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) Monitoring
Reservoir Geomechanics
Deformation and Linked Fluid Flow
Soft Reservoirs
Hard Reservoirs
3D and 4D Seismic Roles in Exploration and Production
4D Seismic: Limitations
References
9 Shear Wave Seismic, AVO and Vp/Vs Analysis
Abstract
Shear Wave Properties - Basics
Polarization of Waves
P-wave Polarization
Shear Wave Data Acquisition, Processing and Interpretation
Mode Converted Shear Waves, P-SV, P-SH and P-SV-P Waves
Multicomponent Surveys (3C and 4C)
Benefits of Shear Wave Studies
Imaging Below Offshore Gas Chimneys
Validating DHI (P-wave Amplitude Anomalies)
AVO Analysis for Validation of Hydrocarbon Sands
AVO Amplitude Analysis
AVO Classification
Class 1 AVO (High-Impedance Gas Sand) Model
Class 3 AVO (Low-Impedance Gas Sand) Model
Class 2 AVO (Near-Zero Impedance Gas Sand) Model
Class 4 AVO (Low-Impedance Gas Sand with Hard Top Seal) Model
Gradient and Intercept Analysis
Cross-Plot of Intercept and Gradient
Poisson’s Ratio, Angular Reflectivity in AVO Analysis
Case Example
Anisotropy Effect in AVO Analysis
AVO Modelling, Elastic and Zoeppritz’s Gather
Limitations of AVO Analysis
Vp/Vs Analysis, Prediction of Rock-Fluid Properties
Vp/Vs for Fluid Prediction
Case Example
Vp/Vs for Lithology Prediction
Vp/Vs for Porosity and Clay Content Prediction
Shear Wave Birefringence, Fracture Prediction
Limitations of Fracture Prediction
References
10 Analysing Seismic Attributes
Abstract
Primary Attributes
Tuning Thickness: Thin Bed Definition and Amplitude Variation
Complex Trace Analysis—Amplitude, Frequency, Phase Polarity Sweetness
Instantaneous Amplitude (Reflection Strength)
Instantaneous Frequency
Polarity
Sweetness
Instantaneous Phase
Spectral Decomposition (AVF)
Geometric Attributes
Dip and Azimuth
Curvature
Coherence
Ant-Tracking
Limitations of Ant-Tracking
Multiattributes Analysis and Composite Coloured (Overlay) Displays
Multiattributes Analysis
Composite and Overlay Colour Displays
Multiattributes, Applications and Significances
Limitations in Attribute Studies
References
11 Seismic Modelling and Inversion
Abstract
Physical and Numerical Modelling
Seismic Forward Modelling
1D Modelling, Synthetic Seismogram
Choice of Wavelet
2D/3D Modelling, Structural and Stratigraphic
Structural Modelling
Stratigraphic Modelling
Limitations of Forward Modelling
Inverse Modelling Types
Operator-Based Inversion
Recursive Inversion
Model-based Inversion
Geostatistical (Stochastic) Inversion
Seismic Inversion, Types of Attributes
Interval Velocity Inversion (Vp)
Acoustic Impedance Inversion (AI)
Elastic Impedance Inversion (EI)
Simultaneous Inversion (SI)
Density Inversion
AVO Inversion
Thin-bed Reflectivity Inversion
Phase Rotation to Harmonize Seismic Data
Seismic Inversion in Reservoir Modelling and Management
Limitations of Inversion
References
12 Seismic Pitfalls
Abstract
Seismic Technology (API) Related Pitfalls
Acquisition Related Artefacts
Processing Linked Snags
Interpretation Linked Pitfalls
Amplitude-Related Pitfalls
Velocity-Related Pitfalls
Case Example
Natural System-Related Pitfalls
Wave Propagation Complications
Anisotropy
Time Domain Data Recording
Geological Impediments, Vagaries of Nature
Case Examples, Vagaries of Nature
Seismic Limitations
References
Unconventional Reservoirs Exploration and Production-Seismic Role
13 Oil Sands, Heavy Oil, Tight Oil/Gas, BCGAs and CBM
Abstract
Oil Sands, Heavy/Extra Heavy Oil
Oil Sands
Extraction of Oil
Heavy/Extra Heavy Oil
Production of Oil
Thermal Methods
Cyclic Steam Stimulation (CSS)
Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage (SAGD)
Steam Flooding
In-Situ Combustion (ISC)
Tight Oil/ Gas
Oil/Gas Production
Seismic Role
Cross-Well Tomography
Basin-Centered Gas Accumulations (BCGAs)
Types of BCGAs
‘Direct’ BCGAs
‘Indirect’ BCGAs
Abnormal Pressure and BCGAs Reservoirs
Abnormal Pressure (High Pressured)
BCGAs Reservoirs
Role of Seismic
Source and Reservoir Detection
Overpressure Detection
Fracture Detection, ‘Sweet Spots’
Coal-Bed Methane
The Coal Reservoir
Coal Cleats, the Fracture System
Cleat Porosity and Permeability
Methane Production
Seismic Role
AVO Analysis for Coal
Limitations
References
14 Shale Oil and Gas, Oil Shale and Gas Hydrates
Abstract
Shale Oil and Gas
Shale Reservoirs
Shale Prospect Appraisal
Type of Shale
Depth of Occurrence
Clay Content and Minerology
Shale Oil/Gas Production
Fracking
Seismic Role
Shale Characterization
TOC and kerogen
Thermal Maturity
Anisotropy
Brittleness
Insitu Stress
Microseismic Monitoring of ‘Fracking’
Oil Shale
Gas Hydrates
Oceanic Gas Hydrates
Occurrences
Permafrost Gas Hydrates, Occurrences
Gas Hydrate Petroleum System
Source
Reservoir
Trap
Migration
Methane Production from Hydrates
Seismic Role
References
15 Fractured-Basement Reservoirs
Abstract
Faults and Fractures, Tectonics and Basement Rocks
Faults and Fractures
Tectonics
Basement Rock Types
Hydrocarbon Accumulation in Fractured-Basement Reservoirs
Source
Reservoirs
Traps
Reservoir Characterization-Fracture Geometry
Reserve Estimate and Productivity
Role of Seismic
Seismic Mapping of Faults and Fractures
Velocity Variation with Azimuth (VVAz)
Coherence
Curvature
Dip and Azimuth
Ant-Tracking
Seismic Limitations in Mapping Basement Fractures
Exploring Basement Reservoirs
References