Foreword
Acknowledgements
Contents
1 Authentication and Confidentiality in FPGA-Based Clouds
1.1 Introduction
1.2 FPGA-Based Cloud Architectures
1.2.1 FPGA as a Cloud Service Accelerator
1.2.2 Infrastructure as a Service FPGA Acceleration
1.2.3 FPGA-Based Cloud Without a Trusted Authority
1.2.4 FPGA-Based Cloud with a Trusted Authority
1.3 FPGA-Based Cloud Authentication Solutions
1.3.1 Authentication Principles
1.3.1.1 Direct Authentication
1.3.1.2 Authentication Using a Trusted Authority
1.3.2 Bitstream Authentication
1.3.3 FPGA Authentication
1.3.3.1 Direct FPGA and User Authentication
1.3.3.2 FPGA and User Authentication Using a Trusted Authority
1.4 Open Challenges
1.4.1 Multi-tenancy
1.4.2 Remote FPGA Attacks
1.5 Authorization and Access Delegation Framework for FPGA-Enabled Cloud Computing
1.5.1 Client Request and Certificate Creation
1.5.2 HTTP Redirection and Authorization Grants
1.5.3 Access Management and Token Generation Phase
1.5.4 Client and FPGA Secure Channel
1.5.5 Access Control with Tokens
1.5.6 Access Control of Bitstreams
1.6 Performance Analysis
1.6.1 Theoretical Performance
1.6.2 Time Estimation for Token Generation
1.7 Conclusion
References
2 Domain Isolation and Access Control in Multi-tenant CloudFPGAs
2.1 Introduction
2.2 System Organization
2.2.1 FPGA Provisioning Model
2.2.1.1 FPGA Hardware Elasticity
2.2.1.2 FPGA Interfacing
2.2.2 Virtual Machine Integration
2.2.3 Simultaneous FPGA Access
2.3 Security Architecture and Domain Isolation
2.3.1 FLASK Security Architecture
2.3.2 Threat Model and System Assumption
2.3.3 Domain Isolation Model
2.3.4 Hardware/Software Isolation Architecture
2.3.4.1 Security Server
2.3.4.2 Hardware Modules Manager
2.3.4.3 Secure Communication Protocol
2.3.4.4 FPGA Area Overhead
2.3.4.5 Security Assessment
2.3.4.6 FPGA Configuration and Communication Overhead
2.4 Discussion
References
3 Efficient and Secure Encryption for FPGAs in the Cloud
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Cryptographic Primitives: Block Ciphers
3.2.1 Architectures
3.2.1.1 High-Throughput Implementations
3.2.2 Implementation Results of Different Block Ciphers
3.3 Cryptographic Primitives: Stream Ciphers
3.3.1 eSTREAM Project
3.3.2 Implementation Results of Different Stream Ciphers
3.4 Cryptographic Primitives: Authenticated Encryption
3.4.1 AES-GCM
3.4.2 Finite Field Multiplication
3.4.2.1 Karatsuba Multiplier
3.4.2.2 AES Architectures
3.4.2.3 AES-GCM Circuit Architecture
3.4.2.4 AES-GCM Implementation Results
3.4.3 GIFT-COFB
3.4.3.1 GIFT-COFB Circuit Architecture
3.4.4 ROMULUS
3.4.4.1 ROMULUS-N1 Circuit Architecture
3.4.5 ASCON 128
3.4.5.1 ASCON 128 Circuit Architecture
3.4.5.2 Implementation Results of Different Authenticated Encryption Algorithms
3.5 Post-Quantum Cryptography
3.6 Conclusion and Open Problems
References
4 Remote Physical Attacks on FPGAs at the Electrical Level
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Background
4.2.1 Power Distribution in Integrated Circuits
4.2.2 Security Threats Based on PDN Access
4.2.2.1 Fault Attacks Based on Power
4.2.2.2 Power Side-Channel Attacks
4.3 Interaction Between Voltage and FPGA Logic
4.3.1 Voltage Drop Injection with Digital Logic
4.3.2 Digital Logic for Voltage Estimation
4.4 Fault and Side-Channel Attacks on FPGA Platforms
4.4.1 Power Analysis Attack on a Lattice ECP5
4.4.2 Fault Attack on a Xilinx Ultrascale VCU108
4.4.3 Results on Additional FPGA Platforms
4.5 Countermeasures
4.5.1 The Importance of Physical Design Parameters
4.5.2 Offline Bitstream Checking Countermeasures
4.5.3 Online On-Chip Countermeasures
4.5.4 Overview of Countermeasures
4.6 Summary
References
5 Practical Implementations of Remote Power Side-Channel and Fault-Injection Attacks on Multitenant FPGAs
5.1 Electrical-Level Vulnerabilities of Remote FPGAs
5.2 Attack Scenarios
5.3 Remote Power Side-Channel Attacks
5.3.1 FPGA Voltage Sensors
5.3.2 Power Side-Channel Analysis
5.3.3 Running the Attack
5.3.4 Countermeasures
5.4 Remote Fault-Injection Attacks
5.4.1 Timing Constraints
5.4.2 FPGA Power Wasters
5.4.3 Fault Injection vs. Denial of Service
5.4.4 Victim
5.4.5 Exploits and Possible Extensions
5.4.6 Countermeasures
5.5 Conclusions
References
6 Contention-Based Threats Between Single-Tenant Cloud FPGA Instances
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Contributions
6.1.2 Chapter Organization
6.2 Background and Related Work
6.2.1 AWS F1 Instance Architecture
6.2.2 Programming AWS F1 Instances
6.2.3 Related Work
6.2.3.1 PCIe-Based Threats
6.2.3.2 Power-Based Threats
6.2.3.3 Thermal-Based Threats
6.2.3.4 DRAM-Based Threats
6.2.3.5 Multi-tenant Security
6.3 PCIe Contention in Cloud FPGAs
6.4 Cross-VM Covert Channels
6.4.1 Covert-Channel Implementation
6.4.2 Experimental Setup
6.4.3 Bandwidth vs. Accuracy Trade-Offs
6.4.4 Transfer Sizes
6.4.5 Operating Systems
6.5 Cross-VM Side-Channel Leaks
6.5.1 Inferring User Activity
6.5.1.1 Experimental Setup
6.5.1.2 Leaking Private Information from Marketplace AMIs
6.5.2 Detecting Instance Initialization
6.5.3 Long-Term PCIe Monitoring
6.5.4 Interference Attacks
6.6 Other Cross-Instance Effects
6.6.1 Network-Based Contention
6.6.2 SSD Contention
6.6.2.1 SSD-to-SSD Contention
6.6.2.2 FPGA-to-SSD Contention
6.6.3 DRAM-Based Thermal Monitoring
6.6.3.1 Setup and Evaluation
6.7 Conclusion
References
7 Cross-board Power-Based FPGA, CPU, and GPU Covert Channels
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 Contributions
7.1.2 Chapter Organization
7.2 Threat Model
7.3 Experimental Setup
7.3.1 Ring Oscillators
7.3.2 Architectural FPGA Design
7.3.2.1 Covert-Channel Source
7.3.2.2 Covert-Channel Sink
7.3.3 FPGA Boards
7.3.4 Power Supply Units and Computer Transmitters
7.3.5 Data Collection and Encoding
7.4 Classification Metric
7.4.1 Why Absolute Counts Are Not Enough
7.4.2 A New Metric Based on Count Differences
7.4.3 Characterization of the Proposed Metric
7.5 Cross-FPGA Communication
7.5.1 Overview of Results
7.5.2 Transmitter and Stressor ROs
7.5.3 BandwidthβAccuracy Tradeoffs
7.5.4 Transmitted Patterns and Cabling Layouts
7.5.5 Ring Oscillator Types and Alternative Experimental Setup
7.6 Additional Covert Channels
7.6.1 CPU Transmissions
7.6.2 GPU Transmissions
7.7 Discussion
7.7.1 Practicality of Attacks
7.7.2 Defense Mechanisms
7.8 Related Work
7.8.1 Remote FPGA Attacks
7.8.2 Power and Temperature Covert Channels
7.9 Conclusion
References
8 Microarchitectural Vulnerabilities Introduced, Exploited, and Accelerated by Heterogeneous FPGA-CPU Platforms
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Background
8.2.1 Cache Attacks
8.2.1.1 Eviction Sets
8.2.2 Rowhammer
8.2.3 RSA-CRT Signing
8.2.4 IOTLB Side Channel
8.3 Experimental Setup
8.4 Analysis of Intel FPGA-CPU Systems
8.4.1 Intel FPGA Platforms
8.4.2 Intel's FPGA-CPU Compatibility Layers
8.4.2.1 Memory-Mapped I/O (MMIO)
8.4.2.2 Direct Memory Access (DMA)
8.4.3 Cache and Memory Architecture on the Intel FPGAs
8.4.3.1 Arria 10 PAC
8.4.3.2 Integrated Arria 10
8.4.3.3 Reverse-Engineering Caching Hint Behavior
8.5 The JackHammer Attack
8.5.1 JackHammer: An FPGA Implementation of Rowhammer
8.5.2 JackHammer on the FPGA PAC vs. CPU Rowhammer
8.5.3 JackHammer on the Integrated Arria 10 vs. CPU Rowhammer
8.5.4 The Effect of Caching on Rowhammer Performance
8.6 Fault Attack on RSA Using JackHammer
8.6.1 RSA Fault Injection Attacks
8.6.1.1 Fault Injection Attack with RSA Base Blinding
8.6.2 Our Attack
8.6.2.1 Attack Setup
8.6.3 Performance of the Attack
8.7 Cache Attacks on Intel FPGA-CPU Platforms
8.7.1 Cache Attacks from FPGA PAC to CPU
8.7.2 Cache Attacks from Integrated Arria 10 FPGA to CPU
8.7.2.1 Constructing a Covert Channel from AFU to CPU
8.7.3 Cache Attacks from CPU to Integrated Arria 10 FPGA
8.7.4 Intra-FPGA Cache Side Channels
8.8 Countermeasures
8.8.1 Hardware Monitors
8.8.2 Increasing DRAM Row Refresh Rate
8.8.3 Cache Partitioning and Pinning
8.8.4 Disabling Huge Pages and Virtualizing AFU Address Space
8.8.5 Protection Against Bellcore Attack
8.9 Conclusion
References
9 Fingerprinting and Mapping Cloud FPGA Infrastructures
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 Contributions and Chapter Organization
9.2 Background
9.2.1 Cloud FPGAs
9.2.2 Decay-Based DRAM PUFs
9.2.3 Ring Oscillators
9.2.4 PCIe Contention and NUMA Localities
9.3 Threat Model
9.4 Fingerprinting Cloud FPGAs
9.4.1 DRAM PUF Design
9.4.1.1 Accessing DRAM from the FPGA
9.4.1.2 Collecting DRAM PUF Fingerprints
9.4.2 DRAM PUF Evaluation
9.4.2.1 Data Collection on AWS
9.4.2.2 DRAM PUF Example on Cloud FPGAs
9.4.2.3 Fingerprinting Metric
9.4.2.4 Identifying Repeated Instances
9.4.2.5 Monitoring Temperature Changes
9.4.3 RO PUF Design
9.4.4 RO PUF Evaluation
9.4.5 Defense Strategies
9.5 Cloud FPGA Cartography
9.5.1 Experimental Setup
9.5.2 Evaluation
9.5.2.1 Determining NUMA Localities
9.5.2.2 Cross-VM PCIe Contention
9.5.2.3 Contention Between f1.4xlarge Instances
9.5.2.4 Data Center Regions and On-Demand Instances
9.5.2.5 Probability of Co-location
9.5.2.6 Overlap Between Instance Types
9.5.2.7 Practical Considerations
9.6 Related Work
9.6.1 Remote FPGA Attacks
9.6.2 Cloud Security
9.7 Conclusion
References
10 Countermeasures Against Voltage Attacks in Multi-tenant FPGAs
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Overview of Voltage Attacks and Countermeasures
10.2.1 Threats
10.2.2 Countermeasures
10.3 Voltage Attacks
10.3.1 Types of Power Wasters Used in Voltage Attacks
10.3.2 Effects of Power Wasters on FPGA PDN
10.3.3 Potential Threats of Voltage Attacks
10.4 Voltage Sensing and Fault Detection
10.4.1 On-Chip Voltage Sensors
10.4.2 Voltage Attack Detection
10.5 Reactive Countermeasures for Voltage Attacks
10.5.1 Disabling Synchronous Power Wasters
10.5.2 Disabling Asynchronous Power Wasters Using Partial Reconfiguration
10.5.3 Modified Partial Reconfiguration
10.6 Ideas to Address Security Threats
10.7 Conclusion
References
11 Programmable RO (PRO): A Multipurpose Countermeasure Against Side-Channel and Fault Injection Attack
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 Adversary Model
11.1.1.1 Side-Channel Attacker Model
11.1.1.2 Fault Attacker Model
11.1.1.3 Chapter Organization
11.2 Related Work
11.2.1 On-Chip Sensors as a Countermeasure Against Power SCA
11.2.2 On-Chip Sensors to Detect or Cause Power Perturbation
11.2.3 On-Chip Sensors to Detect Fault Injection
11.2.4 Our Contribution
11.3 Programmable RO Design
11.3.1 Background
11.3.2 PRO Design and Configuration
11.3.3 PRO Integration and Basic Principles
11.4 Side-Channel Countermeasure
11.5 Power Sensing
11.5.1 PRO Power Sensing with Regard to External Power Variations
11.5.2 PRO Power Sensing with Regard to On-die Local Power Variations
11.5.3 PRO Power Sensing with Regard to Sensor Locality
11.6 Fault Detection
11.6.1 Power Fault Detection
11.6.2 Electromagnetic Fault Injection (EMFI) Detection
11.7 Conclusion
References
Index