Saffron: Science, Technology and Health

✍ Scribed by Alireza Koocheki (editor), Mohammad Khajeh-Hosseini (editor)

• Publisher: Woodhead Pub Ltd
• Year: 2019
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 569
• Edition: 1
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

Saffron: Science, Technology and Health summarizes the scientific, technical and health aspects of this crop. Saffron possesses unique agronomical, ecological, social and physiological characteristics. And, there are various chemical components present in saffron, including carbohydrates, minerals, vitamins, color pigment, aromatic and flavoring agents. Saffron has a long history of use in traditional medicine, and in recent years, the application of saffron in the medical industry as a cancer curing and antidepressant agent has brought more attention. There is also a growing trend of saffron use in the conventional food industry, including saffron desserts, cream, butter, beverages, powders, cake mixes and soups.

Intended for nutrition scientists and scientists and technologists working in the areas of food, agriculture, new product development and pharmacology.

• Summarizes the scientific, technical and health aspects of saffron
• Explores the use of saffron in the conventional food industry in the development of new products
• Uncovers the unique agronomical, ecological, social and physiological characteristics of saffron

✦ Table of Contents

Front Cover
Saffron: Science, Technology and Health
Copyright Page
Contents
List of contributors
Preface
Acknowledgments
I. Cultural and historical aspects of saffron
1 Saffron and folklore
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Aspects of folklore in planting, growing, and harvesting of saffron
1.3 Applications of saffron in folklore
1.3.1 Saffron and food
1.3.2 Saffron in prayers, charms, and talismans
1.3.3 Other uses of saffron
1.3.4 Popular medicine
1.4 Saffron in popular literature
1.4.1 Do-bayti
1.4.2 Riddles
1.4.3 Stories and humor
1.5 Conclusion
References
Further reading
2 Saffron and religion
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Saffron in Indian religions
2.2.1 Saffron symbols
2.2.2 Saffron in Tantara rites
2.2.3 Saffron for laundering Gods
2.2.4 Saffron color in India’s flag
2.2.5 Saffron, the color of religious costumes
2.2.6 Saffron celebrations and festivals
2.2.7 Saffron color in Buddhism
2.3 Semitic religions
2.3.1 Judaism
2.3.2 Islam
2.4 Conclusion
References
Further reading
3 Saffron in the ancient history of Iran
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Saffron in Iran before Islam
3.2.1 Use of saffron before Islam
3.2.2 Use of saffron in ancient Iran
3.2.2.1 Saffron for food applications
3.2.2.2 Medical and pharmaceutical uses
3.2.2.3 Cosmetic use
3.2.2.4 Ritual uses
3.2.2.4.1 Burning and incensing saffron
3.2.2.4.2 Donating and gifting saffron
3.2.2.4.3 Decoration of steeds with saffron
3.2.2.4.4 Drinking saffron syrup
3.2.2.4.5 Magical uses
3.2.2.4.6 Writing uses
3.2.2.4.7 Applications of saffron in astronomy and astrology
3.3 Saffron in Iran after Islam
3.3.1 Cultivation of saffron
3.3.2 Saffron as a commodity
3.3.3 Applications of saffron in Iranian daily life
3.3.3.1 Odor and aroma
3.3.3.2 Dyeing
3.3.3.3 Food
3.4 Conclusion
References
Further reading
II. Safron production
4 Evolution and botany of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) and allied species
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Crocus
4.3 Contractile roots
4.4 Corm
4.5 Iridaceae
4.6 Saffron evolution and phylogeny
4.7 Pollination and seed growth
4.8 Sexual reproduction
4.9 Cultivated saffron (Crocus sativus L.)
4.10 Wild saffron (C. cartwrightianus Herbert)
4.11 Crocus palasii subsp. Haussknechtii
4.12 Crocus oreocreticus Burtt
4.13 Crocus Thomasii Tenore
4.14 Crocus hadriaticus
4.15 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Further reading
5 Soil conditions for sustainable saffron production
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Soil conditions
5.3 Soil texture
5.4 Soil nutrient content
5.5 Saffron nitrogen requirement
5.6 Nitrogen use efficiency in saffron
5.7 Conclusion
References
6 Saffron water requirements
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Crop coefficients and potential evapotranspiration
6.3 Irrigation scheduling
6.3.1 Before corm lifting
6.3.2 After corm planting
6.3.3 Preflowering irrigation in autumn
6.3.4 During vegetative growth
6.3.5 Summer irrigation
6.4 Rainfed saffron production
6.5 Factors affecting water requirements
6.6 Irrigation methods
6.7 Water quality
6.7.1 Water quality parameters
6.7.2 Salt stress in saffron
6.8 Water-use efficiency and productivity
6.9 Physiological responses of saffron to water stress
6.10 Beneficial water-related approaches for saffron production
6.11 Saffron response to flooding
6.12 Indigenous irrigation knowledge
6.13 Conclusion
References
7 Saffron “seed”, the corm
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Corm botanical criteria
7.2.1 Mother and daughter corms
7.2.2 Main and lateral buds
7.2.3 Root system
7.2.4 Developmental stages and phonological description
7.2.5 Corm nutrient content
7.2.6 Field age effect on corm production
7.3 Agronomical practices
7.3.1 Corm lifting time and storage
7.3.2 Planting time
7.3.3 Planting depth
7.3.4 Row spacing, corm density
7.3.5 Corm size/weight
7.3.6 Corm size classification
7.3.7 Planting beds
7.3.7.1 Application of organic and chemical fertilizers
7.3.7.2 Crop residue
7.3.7.3 Intercropping
7.3.7.4 Planting under controlled environment
7.3.8 Application of hormones
7.4 Corm and climate change
7.5 Conclusion
References
8 Ecophysiology of saffron
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Climatic factors for crop production
8.2.1 Temperature
8.2.2 Precipitation
8.3 Lifecycle
8.3.1 Flowering phase
8.3.2 Vegetative phase
8.3.3 Production of replacement corms
8.3.4 Dormant phase
8.4 Growth parameters
8.4.1 Leaf area index
8.4.2 Crop growth rate
8.4.3 Relative growth rate
8.4.4 Net assimilate rate
8.4.5 Leaf area ratio
8.4.6 Leaf weight ratio
8.4.7 Corms
8.4.8 Whole plant
8.4.9 Source and sink relationship in the growth organs
8.5 Effects of environmental changes on the quality of saffron
8.6 Yield determination
8.7 Conclusion
References
9 Advances in modeling saffron growth and development at different scales
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Statistical models
9.2.1 The basics
9.2.2 Crop-weather models for saffron yield prediction
9.3 Artificial neural networks
9.3.1 Artificial neural networks, an overview
9.3.2 Application of artificial neural networks for saffron
9.4 Application of response surface modeling in saffron production
9.4.1 Statistical background
9.4.2 Central composite designs
9.4.3 Application
9.5 Dynamic simulation models
9.5.1 Advances in development of simulation models for saffron
9.5.2 Radiation-based model for saffron growth
9.5.2.1 Structure of a radiation-based model
9.5.2.2 Leaf growth and senescence
9.5.2.3 Radiation absorption and dry matter production
9.5.2.4 Inputs and parameters of the model
9.6 Modeling saffron development and flowering
9.6.1 Hypothetical model of saffron development
9.6.2 Developmental responses in crop species
9.6.3 Structure of the model
9.6.3.1 Flower initiation
9.6.3.2 Flower emergence
9.6.4 Simulation of saffron response to climate change
9.6.4.1 General impacts of global warming
9.6.4.2 Effects of climate change on development rate
9.6.4.3 Effects of climate change on length of flowering period
9.7 Land suitability and zoning methodology for saffron
9.7.1 Objectives and methods of zoning
9.7.2 Application of zoning schemes to saffron
9.8 Conclusion
References
Further reading
10 Saffron crop protection
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Weeds
10.2.1 Weed and saffron ecophysiology
10.2.2 Weed presence in saffron fields and possibility of weed control
10.2.3 Critical period of weed control
10.2.4 Dominant weeds in saffron fields
10.2.4.1 Annual winter weeds
10.2.4.2 Annual summer weeds
10.2.4.3 Perennials
10.2.5 Weed management
10.2.5.1 Monitoring
10.2.5.2 Prevention
10.2.5.3 Mechanical control
10.2.5.4 Soil solarization
10.2.5.5 Mix cropping
10.2.5.6 Cover crops
10.2.5.7 Chemical control (Herbicides)
10.3 Pests
10.3.1 Mites (Acari) and Insects (Insecta)
10.3.1.1 Rhizoglyphus robini Claparede, Acari: Rhizoglyphidae
10.3.1.1.1 Morphology and biology
10.3.1.1.2 Types of damage
10.3.1.1.3 Distribution of Rhizoglyphus robini mites
10.3.1.1.4 Factors causing Rhizoglyphus robini to be problematic
10.3.1.1.5 Technical strategies to prevent and control saffron mites
10.3.1.1.6 Prevention and control of mites in old farms
10.3.1.1.7 Prevention and control of mites prior to corms planting
10.3.1.2 Harmful rodents in saffron fields
10.3.1.2.1 The short-tailed bandicoot rat (Nesokia indica Gray)
10.3.1.2.2 The southern mole vole (Ellobius fuscocapillus Blyth)
10.3.1.2.3 Preventing and controlling rats in saffron fields
10.4 Pathogens
10.4.1 The fungal agents of saffron corm rot
10.4.2 Fusarium rottings of the saffron corm
10.4.3 Nematodes
10.4.4 The saffron pathogenic bacteria
10.4.5 Saffron viruses
10.5 Conclusion
References
Further reading
11 Mechanization of saffron production
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 The role of mechanization in agricultural development
11.1.2 Economic advantages of saffron mechanization
11.2 Machines for corm production
11.2.1 Physical properties of saffron corms
11.2.2 Corm digging
11.2.3 Corm sorting
11.3 Tillage
11.3.1 Bed preparation for corm planting
11.3.2 Crust breaking
11.4 Corm planting
11.4.1 Planting patterns
11.4.2 Traditional planting methods
11.4.3 Automatic planting machines
11.5 Harvesting saffron flowers
11.5.1 Traditional method of harvesting saffron flowers
11.5.2 Invented picker machines
11.6 Saffron stigma separation
11.6.1 Physical properties of saffron flowers
11.6.2 Traditional stigma–flower separation method
11.6.3 Invented separators
11.7 Conclusion
References
12 Emerging innovation in saffron production
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Why is innovation needed?
12.3 Production under controlled environments
12.3.1 Soilless beds
12.3.1.1 Hydroponics and aeroponics
12.3.2 Growth chambers
12.3.3 In vitro cultivation
12.4 Forced flowering
12.5 Nonconventional breeding techniques
12.6 Application of hormones
12.7 Production in inadequate climates
12.8 Organic production
12.9 Mechanization
12.10 Smart farming
12.11 Saffron as feed additive
12.12 Saffron byproducts
12.13 e-commerce
12.14 Conclusion
References
Further reading
III. Genetics and biotechnology of saffron
13 Utilizing O-mics technologies for saffron valorization
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Analysis of variation in saffron germplasm
13.3 Epigenetics stability
13.4 Detection of adulteration and DNA-based traceability
13.5 Perspectives
Acknowledgements
References
14 Tissue and cell culture of saffron
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Tissue culture of monocotyledons
14.3 Micropropagation of saffron
14.3.1 Explant preparation
14.3.2 Propagation
14.3.3 Acclimation
14.4 Callus and cell culture
14.5 Direct organogenesis
14.5.1 Generating adventitious shoots
14.5.2 Microcorm production
14.6 Somatic embryogenesis
14.7 Protoplast culture
14.8 Stigma-like structure
14.9 Conclusion
References
15 Molecular biology of Crocus sativus
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Flower development
15.3 Gametogenesis and interspecific hybridization
15.4 Secondary metabolites
15.4.1 Carotenoid biosynthesis in plants
15.4.2 Carotenoid biosynthesis in saffron
15.4.3 Apocarotenoid biosynthesis
15.4.4 Crocin, crocetin, picrocrocin, and safranal
15.4.5 Genetic regulation of carotenoids biosynthesis
15.5 Production of saffron metabolites in microorganisms
15.6 Saffron–microbe interactions
15.7 Molecular response to abiotic stresses
15.8 Conclusion
References
IV. Saffron processing
16 Bioactive ingredients of saffron: extraction, analysis, applications
16.1 Introduction
16.1.1 International classification of saffron stigmas
16.1.2 Iranian trade categories
16.2 Saffron drying methods
16.3 Extraction of saffron bioactive components
16.3.1 Conventional extraction techniques
16.3.1.1 Maceration
16.3.1.2 Soxhlet extraction
16.3.1.3 Hydrodistillation
16.3.2 Novel extraction methods
16.3.2.1 Supercritical fluid extraction
16.3.2.2 High pressure extraction
16.3.2.3 Ultrafiltration
16.3.2.4 Microextraction methods
16.3.2.5 Solid-phase microextraction
16.3.2.6 Stir-bar sorptive extraction
16.3.2.7 Dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction
16.4 Characterization of saffron bioactive compounds
16.4.1 UV-Vis spectrophotometry
16.4.2 High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
16.4.3 Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS)
16.4.4 Electronic nose technique
16.5 Applications of saffron bioactive ingredients: from prehistory up to 21st century
16.5.1 Food industry
16.5.2 Pharmaceutical industry
16.5.3 Cosmetics and other sectors
16.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
17 Dehydration of saffron stigmas
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Drying methods
17.3 Traditional methods
17.4 Artificial drying methods
17.5 Hybrid photovoltaic–thermal solar dryer
17.6 Infrared thin-layer drying
17.7 Freeze drying
17.8 Microwave drying
17.9 Effects of drying on color, aroma, and taste
17.10 Conclusion
References
18 Saffron packaging
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Saffron packaging
18.3 Paper and paperboard
18.4 Aluminum foil
18.5 Glass
18.6 Low-density polyethylene
18.7 High-density polyethylene
18.8 Modified atmosphere packaging
18.9 Nanosilver composite antimicrobial packaging
18.10 Edible and biodegradable films
18.11 Conclusion
References
19 Assessment and monitoring of saffron microbiological criteria
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Microbial critical point in saffron
19.2.1 Microbiological analysis
19.2.1.1 Classical culturing method
19.2.1.2 Rapid assessment by molecular analysis
19.3 Monitoring harvesting of saffron flowers
19.4 Monitoring transportation of saffron flowers
19.5 Microbial decontamination of saffron by different postharvest processes
19.5.1 Effect of drying processes on microbiological quality of dried stigma
19.5.1.1 Traditional drying
19.5.1.2 Artificial drying
19.5.1.3 Freeze-drying process
19.5.2 Effect of cold plasma process on microbiological quality of dried stigma
19.5.3 Effect of ozone treatment on microbiological quality of dried stigma
19.5.4 Effect of irradiation treatment on microbiological quality of dried stigma
19.5.4.1 Microwave treatment
19.5.4.2 Electron beam and gamma irradiation treatment
19.5.5 Infrared irradiation treatment
19.6 Saffron packaging
19.6.1 Modified atmosphere packing
19.7 Effect of antibacterial packaging on microbiological quality of dried stigma
19.8 Effect of Hurdle technology on microbiological quality of dried stigma
19.9 Conclusion
References
Further reading
20 Saffron adulteration
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Detecting adulteration
20.2.1 Chromatographic techniques
20.2.2 Infrared spectroscopy
20.2.3 1H nuclear magnetic resonance
20.2.4 Molecular techniques
20.2.5 Electronic nose
20.3 Conclusion
References
V. Economy and trade of saffron
21 Economic analysis of saffron production
21.1 Introduction
21.2 World’s main exporters of saffron
21.3 Price of saffron
21.4 Saffron production around the world
21.4.1 Iran
21.4.2 India
21.4.3 Greece
21.4.4 Spain
21.4.5 Afghanistan
21.4.6 Summary
21.5 Production function in economics
21.5.1 Production function of saffron
21.6 Economic productivity of saffron
21.6.1 Water productivity of saffron
21.6.2 Labor productivity of saffron
21.6.3 Land productivity of saffron
21.7 Economic performance of saffron
21.7.1 Return on investment
21.7.2 Ratio of return to cost
21.8 Efficiency
21.8.1 Energy use efficiency
21.8.1.1 Energy use efficiency of saffron cultivation
21.8.1.2 Economic efficiency
21.8.1.2.1 Economic efficiency of saffron cultivation
21.9 Economic comparative advantage
21.9.1 Revealed comparative advantage
21.9.2 Policy analysis matrix
21.9.3 Nominal protection coefficient
21.9.4 Effective protection coefficient
21.9.5 The domestic resource cost
21.9.6 Based on unit costs
21.10 Some economic advantages of saffron production
21.11 Conclusion
References
22 Saffron marketing: challenges and opportunities
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Problems of exporting and marketing of saffron
22.3 Marketing concepts in the saffron industry
22.4 Marketing management tasks for saffron marketing
22.5 Conclusion
References
23 Environmental economic analysis of saffron production
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Estimation of potential environmental impacts by lifecycle assessment
23.2.1 Global warming potential
23.2.2 Acidification potential
23.2.3 Aquatic eutrophication potential
23.2.4 Terrestrial eutrophication potential
23.2.5 Aggregated environmental indicator (EcoX)
23.3 Ecological economic analysis of energy use
23.3.1 Ecological energy indicators
23.3.2 Ecological analysis of energy input
23.3.3 Energy economic indicators
23.4 Carbon footprint
23.5 Ecosystem functions and services
23.5.1 Valuation of the ecosystem function
23.5.2 Ecosystem services and impacts from agriculture
23.5.3 Ecosystem services
23.5.4 Environmental impacts
23.6 Green policy analysis matrix of saffron
23.7 Conclusion
References
VI. Saffron and health
24 Saffron in Persian traditional medicine
24.1 Introduction
24.2 A short history of using saffron in traditional medicine
24.3 A brief survey on principles of Persian medicine focusing on pharmacological aspects
24.3.1 Temperament
24.3.2 Pharmacotherapy
24.3.3 Temperament of drugs and medicines
24.3.3.1 Normal drugs
24.3.3.2 Warm and cold drugs
24.3.3.3 Classification of drugs based on temperament
24.4 Origin and history of the word saffron
24.5 History of saffron usage in Persian civilization
24.6 Medical properties of saffron
24.6.1 Botanical aspects
24.6.2 The nature and matter of saffron
24.6.3 Temperament and general properties
24.6.4 Medicinal uses of saffron
24.6.5 Toxicity and adverse effects
24.6.6 Quality assessment
24.7 Conclusion
References
25 Antiinflammatory and immunomodulatory effects of saffron and its derivatives
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Antiinflammatory effects of saffron and its derivatives
25.2.1 Antiinflammatory effects of saffron extracts
25.2.2 Antiinflammatory effects of saffron petals
25.2.2.1 Kaempferol
25.2.3 Antiinflammatory effects of saffron derivatives
25.2.3.1 Crocin
25.2.3.2 Crocetin
25.2.3.3 Safranal
25.3 Immunomodulatory effects of saffron and its derivatives
25.3.1 Immunomodulatory effects of saffron extracts
25.3.2 Immunomodulatory effects of saffron derivatives
25.3.2.1 Immunomodulatory effects of crocin
25.3.2.2 Immunomodulatory effects of crocetin
25.3.2.3 Immunomodulatory effects of safranal
25.4 Conclusion
References
Further reading
26 Effectiveness of saffron on memory function, learning ability, and epilepsy
26.1 Introduction
26.2 In vitro and preclinical studies
26.2.1 Memory and learning skills
26.2.2 Oxidative stress
26.2.3 Alzheimer’s disease
26.2.4 Seizure
26.3 Clinical studies
26.4 Conclusion
References
27 Antidepressant and antianxiety properties of saffron
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Nervous system
27.3 Depression and anxiety
27.3.1 Pathophysiology of depression and anxiety
27.3.2 Epidemiology of depression and anxiety
27.3.3 Causes of depression and anxiety
27.4 Antidepressants
27.4.1 Classification of antidepressants and antianxiety drugs
27.4.2 Pharmacokinetics
27.4.3 Mechanism of action of antidepressants and antianxiety drugs
27.4.4 Possible side effects of antidepressants
27.5 Traditional medicine for the treatment of depression and anxiety
27.6 Saffron
27.6.1 Chemical compounds of saffron
27.6.2 Pharmaceutical applications of saffron in traditional medicine
27.6.3 Pharmacology of saffron and its active ingredients
27.6.4 In vivo studies on the effects of saffron and its active compounds on depression and anxiety
27.6.5 Antidepressant and anxiolytic properties of saffron in clinical practice
27.6.6 Mechanistic pathway for antidepressant and antianxiety effects
27.6.7 Effect of saffron and saffron compounds on nervous system diseases
27.7 Conclusion
References
28 Application of saffron as a neuroprotective agent
28.1 Alzheimer’s disease
28.1.1 Introduction and epidemiology
28.1.2 Signs and symptoms
28.1.3 Pathogenesis
28.1.4 Pharmacological therapy
28.2 Saffron in Alzheimer’s disease treatment
28.2.1 Introduction to saffron
28.2.2 Effects of saffron on the central nervous system
28.2.3 Neuroprotective activity of saffron
28.2.4 Saffron clinical trials on Alzheimer’s disease
28.3 Other herbal medicines and Alzheimer’s disease
28.4 Conclusion
References
29 Cardiovascular effects of saffron and its active constituents
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Cardiovascular pharmacological effects of saffron
29.2.1 Antiarrhythmic and antiischemic effects
29.2.2 Protective effects against cardiac hypertrophy
29.2.3 Effects of saffron and its active constituents on blood pressure
29.2.4 Antiatherosclerotic effects of saffron and its active constituents
29.2.5 Protective effects of saffron and its active constituents on natural and chemical toxins
29.3 Conclusion
References
30 Saffron, its main derivatives, and their effects on the respiratory system
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Bronchodilatory effect of saffron and its derivatives
30.2.1 Relaxant effect of saffron extracts on airway smooth muscle
30.2.2 Relaxant effect of saffron derivatives on airway smooth muscle
30.2.3 Possible mechanisms of the airway smooth muscle relaxant effect of saffron and its derivatives
30.3 Prophylactic effect of saffron and its derivatives on respiratory disorders
30.3.1 Prophylactic effect of saffron extracts on respiratory disorders
30.3.2 Prophylactic effect of saffron derivatives on respiratory disorders
30.4 Conclusion
References
31 Saffron’s role in metabolic disorders
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Effects of saffron on obesity
31.3 Effects of saffron on diabetes
31.3.1 Antihyperglycemic effects of saffron
31.3.2 Antihyperglycemic mechanisms of saffron
31.3.3 Effects of saffron on diabetic complications
31.3.3.1 Diabetic neuropathy
31.3.3.2 Diabetic nephropathy
31.3.3.3 Cardiovascular complications
31.3.3.4 Diabetic retinopathy
31.3.3.5 Liver damage
31.3.3.6 Other complications of diabetes
31.4 Conclusion
References
32 Anticancer properties of saffron
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Lung cancer
32.3 Pancreatic cancer
32.4 Colorectal cancer
32.5 Breast cancer
32.6 Leukemia
32.7 Hepatic cancer
32.8 Cervical cancer
32.9 Skin cancer
32.10 Prostate cancer
32.11 Gastric cancer
32.12 Conclusion
References
33 Available saffron formulations and product patents
33.1 Introduction
33.2 Skin care products
33.2.1 Creams
33.2.1.1 Bath cream
33.2.1.2 Face cream
33.2.1.3 Hand cream
33.2.1.4 Biological cosmetic cream
33.2.1.5 Freckle-whitening cream
33.2.1.6 Aloe whitening cream
33.2.1.7 Fu Yang repair cream
33.2.1.8 Liquid cream
33.2.1.9 Fair-complexion face powder
33.2.2 Masks
33.2.2.1 Rose mask
33.2.2.2 Mask for treating common acne
33.2.2.3 Oil-induced acne herbal soap
33.2.2.4 Attapulgite-saffron suntan lotion
33.3 Health care products
33.3.1 Toothpaste
33.3.2 Drugs for kidney health
33.3.3 Compositions containing enriched natural crocin and/or crocetin
33.3.4 Hair conditioner
33.4 Therapeutic products
33.4.1 Chinese medicine for treatment of angiitis
33.4.2 Krocina tablet
33.4.3 Topical spray
33.4.4 Arthritis and rheumatism liquid patch
33.4.5 Ointment for treating dermatitis
33.4.6 Antiacne ointment
33.4.7 Topical spray for treating skin scars
33.4.8 Oral compositions
33.4.9 Tibetan nighttime medicine
33.4.10 Antimicrobial composition
33.4.11 Chinese medicinal composition
33.4.12 Gout medicine
33.4.13 Prepregnancy fetus protection pills
33.4.14 Cold and flu symptomatic relief composition
33.4.15 Herbal composition for treating diabetes
33.4.16 Multiglycosides saffron tablets
33.4.17 Externally applied Chinese medicine
33.4.18 Satiation agent for the treatment of obesity
33.4.19 Medicine for treating chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
33.4.20 Topical treatment for rheumatic arthritis
33.4.21 Chinese medicine for treatment and prevention of rheumatic arthritis
33.4.22 Saffron-based compositions for treating of duodenal bulbar ulcer or inflammation
33.4.23 Traditional Chinese medicine for treating gastric ulcer
33.4.24 Topical treatment for breast cancer
33.4.25 Chinese medicine for treating brain apoplexy
33.4.26 Saffrotin capsule
33.4.27 Composition for the treatment and prevention of degenerative eye disorders
33.4.28 Medicine for treating prostatic hyperplasia
33.4.29 Chinese medicine for treatment of gynecologic diseases
33.4.30 Traditional Chinese composition for treating dysmenorrhea
33.4.31 Composition for treating endocrine dysfunction
33.4.32 Chinese formulation for treating premature ovarian failure
33.4.33 Traditional Chinese medicine for treating rheumatic heart disease
33.4.34 Chinese medicine for treating cataracts
33.4.35 Traditional Chinese medicine capable of treating cervical spondylosis
33.4.36 Traditional Chinese medicine preparation for treating qi stagnation and blood stasis
33.4.37 Chinese medicine for treating osteoproliferation and herniated disk
33.4.38 Traditional Chinese medicine for treating blocking antibody deficiency in recurrent spontaneous abortion
33.4.39 Herbal medicine formula for treating nasopharyngitis
33.4.40 Chinese medicine for treating lung tumor
33.4.41 Medicine for treating damp-heat stagnation (abdominal mass)
33.4.42 Traditional Chinese medicine composition for treating ascites due to cirrhosis
33.4.43 Traditional Chinese medicine for treating nonulcer dyspepsia
33.4.44 Chinese medicine for treating peptic ulcer
33.4.45 Medicine for treating ankylosing spondylitis
33.4.46 Externally-applied wet tissue for treating measles
33.4.47 Treatment of herpes zoster
33.4.48 Chinese composition for treating septic shock
33.4.49 Drug for treating bone injury
33.4.50 Traditional Chinese medicine for treating cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases
33.4.51 Medicine for treating eyelid eczema
33.5 Food products
33.5.1 Vegetable drinks
33.5.2 Healthy drink prepared from saffron pollen
33.6 Conclusion
References
34 Safety and toxicity of saffron
34.1 Introduction
34.2 Experimental data on the safety and toxicity of saffron and its bioactive ingredients in animal models
34.2.1 Acute toxicity
34.2.2 Subacute toxicity
34.2.3 Subchronic and chronic toxicity
34.2.4 Developmental toxicity
34.2.5 Mutagenicity and genotoxicity
34.3 Clinical studies on safe and toxic doses of saffron and its bioactive ingredients
34.4 Conclusion
References
Index
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