RFID Systems: Research Trends and Challenges

✍ Scribed by Bolic M., Simplot-Ryl D., Stojmenovic I.

• Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
• Year: 2010
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 577
• Edition: 1
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

This book provides an insight into the 'hot' field of Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Systems

In this book, the authors provide an insight into the field of RFID systems with an emphasis on networking aspects and research challenges related to passive Ultra High Frequency (UHF) RFID systems. The book reviews various algorithms, protocols and design solutions that have been developed within the area, including most recent advances. In addition, authors cover a wide range of recognized problems in RFID industry, striking a balance between theoretical and practical coverage. Limitations of the technology and state-of-the-art solutions are identified and new research opportunities are addressed. Finally, the book is authored by experts and respected researchers in the field and every chapter is peer reviewed.

Key Features:

* Provides the most comprehensive analysis of networking aspects of RFID systems, including tag identification protocols and reader anti-collision algorithms
* Covers in detail major research problems of passive UHF systems such as improving reading accuracy, reading range and throughput
* Analyzes other "hot topics" including localization of passive RFID tags, energy harvesting, simulator and emulator design, security and privacy
* Discusses design of tag antennas, tag and reader circuits for passive UHF RFID systems
* Presents EPCGlobal architecture framework, middleware and protocols
* Includes an accompanying website with PowerPoint slides and solutions to the problems http://www.site.uottawa.ca/~mbolic/RFIDBook/

This book will be an invaluable guide for researchers and graduate students in electrical engineering and computer science, and researchers and developers in telecommunication industry.

✦ Table of Contents

RFID SYSTEMS......Page 6
Contents......Page 10
About the Editors......Page 20
Preface......Page 22
Acknowledgements......Page 24
Part I COMPONENTS OF RFID SYSTEMS AND PERFORMANCE METRICS......Page 26
1.1.1 Overview......Page 28
1.1.2 Background......Page 29
1.2 Ideal RFID System......Page 30
1.3.2 Single Reader, Single Tag......Page 32
1.3.3 Single Reader, Multiple Tags......Page 37
1.3.4 Multiple Readers, Single or Multiple Tags......Page 40
1.3.5 Mobile Readers and/or Mobile Tags......Page 41
1.3.6 Large Deployments Including Many Readers and Tags......Page 42
1.3.7 Other Desired Features of Practical RFID Systems......Page 43
1.4 Overview of the Book......Page 44
References......Page 46
2.1 Overview......Page 48
2.2 Key Operational Parameters......Page 49
2.2.1 Operating Distance......Page 51
2.2.2 System Throughput......Page 57
2.2.3 Localization......Page 64
2.2.4 Impact of Materials......Page 68
2.2.5 Other Factors Considered......Page 69
2.3 Classification of Commercially Available Products......Page 72
2.3.1 Near-Field Coupled Systems......Page 73
2.3.2 Far-Field Propagating Systems......Page 75
2.3.3 Ultra Wide-Band......Page 76
2.3.5 Semi-Passive Architectures......Page 77
2.3.8 Active Architectures......Page 78
2.4 Conclusion......Page 79
References......Page 80
3 UHF RFID Antennas......Page 82
3.1 Dipoles and Relatives......Page 83
3.1.1 Dipole......Page 84
3.1.2 Radiation......Page 85
3.1.3 Impedance and Bandwidth......Page 86
3.1.4 Radiating Resistance......Page 90
3.1.5 Polarization......Page 92
3.2.1 The Classic T-Match......Page 94
3.2.2 The Modified T-Match......Page 96
3.3 Putting it Together: Building an RFID Tag......Page 99
3.4.1 Dielectric Constant......Page 106
3.4.2 Dielectric Loss......Page 108
3.4.3 Metals......Page 109
3.4.4 Propagation......Page 111
3.4.5 Practical Steps to Overcome Environmental Challenges......Page 112
3.5 Conclusions, Trends, and Challenges......Page 122
References......Page 123
4.1.1 Tag Architecture......Page 124
4.1.2 Design of High Efficiency Frontend Circuits......Page 125
4.2.1 Why Have a Standard CMOS eNVM?......Page 134
4.2.2 Basic Cell Structures and Operation Mechanisms......Page 135
4.2.3 Memory Architecture and Peripheral Circuits......Page 138
4.3.1 Introduction......Page 140
4.3.2 Low Power Baseband Design......Page 141
4.3.3 Clock Rate......Page 142
4.3.4 Clock-Related Low-Power Techniques......Page 144
4.3.6 Adiabatic Circuit......Page 146
4.4 RFID Tag Performance Optimization......Page 147
4.4.2 Low Cost......Page 148
Problems......Page 150
References......Page 151
5.1 Overview......Page 154
5.2 Basics of Passive RFID Operation......Page 155
5.2.1 An Introduction to ISO 18000-6C Air Interface......Page 156
5.2.2 Tag Singulation and Access......Page 159
5.3 Passive RFID Reader Designs......Page 161
5.3.1 RFID Reader Read Range and Transmitted Power......Page 162
5.3.2 RFID Reader Implementation......Page 164
5.4.1 Integrated Transceiver......Page 171
5.4.2 Cancellation of Transmitted Carrier Leakage......Page 172
5.4.3 Dense Reader Operations......Page 173
5.5 Conclusion......Page 175
References......Page 176
6.1 Introduction......Page 180
6.2.1 The Need for a Middleware......Page 181
6.2.2 Architecture......Page 182
6.3.1 Reader Protocol/Interface......Page 185
6.3.2 Manage and Monitor......Page 187
6.4 Data Management and Application-Level Events......Page 189
6.4.1 Data Management and ALE Functionalities......Page 190
6.4.2 Specs and Reports......Page 191
6.4.3 Research Challenges......Page 195
6.5.1 EPC Information Services......Page 196
6.5.2 Object Naming Service......Page 198
6.6 Example......Page 199
References......Page 201
Part II TAG IDENTIFICATION PROTOCOLS......Page 204
7 Aloha-Based Protocols......Page 206
7.1 Pure Aloha......Page 207
7.2 Slotted Aloha......Page 209
7.2.1 Pure versus Slotted Aloha Variants......Page 210
7.3 Framed Slotted Aloha......Page 212
7.3.1 Basic......Page 213
7.3.2 Dynamic......Page 214
7.3.3 Enhanced/Hybrid......Page 218
7.4 Conclusion......Page 224
Problems......Page 225
References......Page 226
8.1 Introduction......Page 228
8.2.1 System Model......Page 230
8.2.2 Basic Tree Protocols......Page 232
8.2.3 Improvements to the Basic Tree Protocol......Page 234
8.2.4 General Arbitration Framework for Tree-Based Protocols......Page 235
8.3 Tree Protocols in the Existing RFID Specifications......Page 239
8.3.1 Tree Protocol for EPCglobal Class 0......Page 240
8.3.2 Tree Protocol for EPCglobal Class 1......Page 241
8.4.2 Transmission Errors......Page 242
8.4.3 Dealing with Moving Tags......Page 246
8.5 Cooperative Readers and Generalized Arbitration Spaces......Page 247
8.5.1 Two-Dimensional Arbitration Space......Page 248
8.5.2 Further Remarks and Multi-Dimensional Arbitration......Page 251
8.6 Conclusion......Page 252
References......Page 253
9.1 Introduction......Page 256
9.2.1 Categories of RFID Technology......Page 257
9.2.2 Requirements for Passive UHF RFID......Page 261
9.3 Different Approaches Used in UHF Protocols......Page 263
9.3.1 Deterministic versus Stochastic......Page 264
9.3.2 RTF versus TTF......Page 265
9.4 Description of Stochastic TTF Protocols......Page 266
9.4.1 Supertag......Page 267
9.4.2 IP-X......Page 269
9.4.3 TOTAL......Page 271
9.4.4 Comparison between Different TTF Protocols......Page 273
9.4.5 TTF Performance with Additional Data Pages......Page 278
9.5.1 Areas of Comparison......Page 280
9.5.2 The Impact of Progress on Technology......Page 283
9.5.3 A Comparison between RTF and TTF for Fast Moving Tags......Page 286
Problems......Page 291
References......Page 292
Part III READER INFRASTRUCTURE NETWORKING......Page 294
10 Integrating RFID Readers in Enterprise IT......Page 296
10.2 RFID System Services......Page 297
10.3 Reader Capabilities......Page 302
10.4 RFID System Architecture Taxonomy......Page 303
10.5 EPCglobal Standards......Page 305
10.5.2 Low Level Reader Protocol (LLRP)......Page 307
10.5.3 Reader Protocol (RP)......Page 309
10.5.4 Application Level Event (ALE)......Page 310
10.5.5 EPC Information Service (EPCIS)......Page 314
10.6 Adoption of High-Level Reader Protocols......Page 315
10.7 Potential Future Standardization Activities......Page 317
10.8 Conclusion......Page 318
References......Page 319
11.1 Introduction......Page 322
11.2 Interference Problem in RFID Reader Networks......Page 323
11.3 Access Mechanism, Regulations, Standards and Algorithms......Page 325
11.3.1 Regulations......Page 326
11.3.2 Standards......Page 327
11.3.3 Reader Anti-Collision Algorithms......Page 328
11.4 Comparison......Page 339
11.5 Conclusion......Page 341
References......Page 342
12.1 Introduction......Page 346
12.2 Overview of RFID Systems......Page 349
12.4 Reader Collision Avoidance......Page 351
12.4.1 Implementation......Page 352
12.5 Coverage Redundancy in RFID Systems: Comparison with Sensor Networks......Page 353
12.6 Network Model......Page 355
12.7.1 Problem Definition......Page 356
12.7.2 Problem Complexity......Page 357
12.8 Redundant Reader Elimination Algorithms: A Centralized Heuristic......Page 359
12.9 RRE: A Distributed Solution......Page 360
12.9.1 RRE......Page 361
12.9.3 Analysis......Page 363
12.9.4 Dependency on RCA......Page 364
12.10 Adapting to Topological Changes......Page 365
12.10.1 Tag Count Resetting......Page 366
12.11.1 Implementation......Page 367
12.12.1 Coverage Problems in WSNs......Page 368
12.13 Conclusion......Page 369
References......Page 370
13.1 Motivation......Page 374
13.2 Overview of FINDERS......Page 375
13.3 General Feasibility Study......Page 376
13.4 Unique Challenges and Tactics......Page 380
13.5 Related Work......Page 383
Problems......Page 384
References......Page 385
Part IV ADDRESSING OTHER CHALLENGES IN RFID SYSTEMS......Page 388
14.1 Introduction......Page 390
14.2 Signal Descriptions and Formulations for Passive Backscatter RFID Systems......Page 391
14.2.1 Signal Descriptions......Page 392
14.2.2 SNR and Read Range Formulation......Page 394
14.3 Improving the Read Range of a Passive RFID System......Page 399
14.4 Improving the Read Rate of a Passive RFID System......Page 404
14.5 Two Design Examples for RFID System......Page 406
Problems......Page 411
References......Page 412
15.1 Introduction......Page 414
15.2.1 RSS-Based Techniques......Page 417
15.2.2 Phase-Based Techniques......Page 419
15.2.3 Time-Based Techniques......Page 421
15.3 DOA Estimation Techniques......Page 422
15.3.3 Smart Antenna......Page 423
15.4.1 Trilateration/Multilateration......Page 424
15.4.2 Triangulation......Page 426
15.4.3 Hybrid Direction/Range Methods......Page 428
15.4.4 Radio Map Matching Methods......Page 430
15.4.5 Proximity......Page 433
15.5 Improving Positioning Accuracy......Page 434
Problems......Page 436
References......Page 437
16.2 Security and Privacy......Page 442
16.3 Classification of RFID Systems......Page 443
16.4 Attacks on RFID Systems and Appropriate Countermeasures......Page 445
16.4.1 Eavesdropping of Messages......Page 446
16.4.2 Denial-of-Service......Page 447
16.4.5 Relay of Messages......Page 448
16.4.6 Tracking and Hotlisting......Page 449
16.4.8 Cryptanalytic Attacks......Page 450
16.4.9 Physical Implementation Attacks......Page 452
16.5 Lightweight Cryptography for RFID......Page 456
16.5.1 Random Number Generators......Page 457
16.5.2 Block Ciphers......Page 459
16.5.3 Stream Ciphers......Page 462
16.5.4 Hash Functions......Page 464
16.5.5 Public-Key Cryptography......Page 465
Problems......Page 468
References......Page 469
17 Cryptographic Approaches for Improving Security and Privacy Issues of RFID Systems......Page 472
17.1 Introduction......Page 473
17.2 Threats against the RFID System......Page 474
17.2.2 Active Reading Attack......Page 475
17.2.5 Destruction/DoS Attack......Page 476
17.3 Required Properties......Page 477
17.3.2 Authentication......Page 478
17.3.3 Privacy......Page 479
17.3.5 Forward Security......Page 480
17.3.7 Proof of Existence......Page 481
17.4 Cryptographic Protocols for Identification with Privacy......Page 482
17.5 Cryptographic Protocols for Authentication without Privacy......Page 484
17.6.1 Approaches with Hash Functions......Page 485
17.6.2 Approaches for Forward Security with Hash Chain......Page 486
17.6.5 Approaches with Lightweight Methods......Page 487
17.6.8 Mutual Authentication......Page 488
17.7 Implementation......Page 489
17.8.2 MiFare Card......Page 491
17.8.4 Approach to Strengthen EPC......Page 492
References......Page 493
18.1 Introduction......Page 498
18.2.1 Dual-Active Standards......Page 500
18.2.2 Micro-Wireless RFID......Page 501
18.2.3 Semi-Active......Page 502
18.3 Energy Harvesting Optimized for RFID......Page 503
18.3.1 Solar Cells......Page 505
18.3.2 Thermoelectric Transducers......Page 507
18.3.3 Vibration Energy Scavenging Solutions......Page 508
18.4 Future Trends in Energy Harvesting......Page 513
18.4.1 Thin-Film MEMS Piezoelectric Cantilevers......Page 514
18.4.2 Integrated Power Management with Load Balancing......Page 516
References......Page 518
19.1.1 Motivation......Page 522
19.1.2 Goal of the Simulation/Emulation Platform......Page 523
19.1.3 Model-Based Design and Veri.cation of UHF RFID Systems......Page 524
19.1.4 Higher Class RFID Tags and Energy Harvesting Devices......Page 525
19.1.5 Basics on Conformance, Performance and Interoperability Testing......Page 527
19.2 The Simulation/Emulation Platforms......Page 530
19.2.1 Layers of the Modeling and Veri.cation Framework......Page 531
19.2.2 Implementation Languages......Page 534
19.3 UHF RFID Simulation Platform......Page 536
19.3.1 Multi-Layer Optimization......Page 537
19.3.2 Modeling and Simulation Techniques......Page 539
19.3.4 Use Case: UHF RFID Systems......Page 545
19.3.5 RFID Application and System Design Kit+Library......Page 549
19.4 Real-Time HIL-Verification and Emulation Platform......Page 550
19.4.1 Timing Analysis......Page 551
19.4.2 Use Case: Multi UHF Tag Emulator......Page 553
19.4.3 RFID Tag Emulator......Page 555
19.5.1 Proposed Mapping of Functional Blocks to Tag ASIC Architecture......Page 556
19.5.2 Cosimulation for Functional Veri.cation: The Partitioning of the UHF RFID System Simulation Model......Page 557
19.5.3 Two-Level Simulation Method for Verification and Improvements Evaluation......Page 560
19.5.4 Use Case Logistics: A Container Transport......Page 561
Problems......Page 564
References......Page 565
Index......Page 568