Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
Contents
Preface to the 3rd Edition
Acknowledgements
Section I: Fundamentals
Chapter 1 Introduction to Reverse Osmosis: History, Challenges, and Future Directions
1.1 Introduction
1.2 A Brief History of Reverse Osmosis
1.2.1 Early Development
1.2.2 Advances 1970s–1980s
1.2.3 Advances from 1990s through the Early 2000s
1.3 Challenges and Prospects
1.3.1 Membrane Materials Development
1.3.2 Modification of Element Construction for Ultra-High Pressure or High-Temperature Operation
1.3.2.1 Ultra-High Pressure Spiral Wound RO
1.3.2.2 High-Temperature Elements
1.3.3 Optimization of RO Element Feed Channel Spacer
1.3.4 Other Advances and Future Requirements
1.4 Summary
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
Chapter 2 Principles and Terminology
2.1 Semipermeable Membranes
2.2 Osmosis
2.3 Reverse Osmosis
2.4 Basic Performance Parameters: Recovery, Rejection, and Flux
2.4.1 Recovery and Concentration Factor
2.4.2 Rejection
2.4.3 Flux
2.4.3.1 Water Flux
2.4.3.2 Solute Flux
2.5 Filtration
2.5.1 Dead-End Filtration
2.5.2 Cross-Flow Filtration
2.6 Concentration Polarization
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
Chapter 3 Membranes: Transport Models, Characterization, and Elements
3.1 Membrane Transport Models
3.1.1 Solution-Diffusion Transport Model
3.1.2 Modified Solution-Diffusion Transport Models
3.1.2.1 Solution-Diffusion Imperfection Model
3.1.2.2 Extended Solution-Diffusion Model
3.1.3 Pore-Based Transport Models
3.1.4 Models Based on Non-Equilibrium Thermodynamics
3.2 Polymeric Membranes
3.2.1 Cellulose Acetate
3.2.2 Linear Polyamide (Aramids)
3.2.3 Fully Aromatic Polyamide Composite Membranes
3.2.3.1 NS-100 Membrane
3.2.3.2 FT-30 Composite Membrane
3.2.4 Characterization of CA and Composite Polyamide Membranes
3.2.4.1 Surface Roughness
3.2.4.2 Zeta Potential (Surface Charge)
3.2.4.3 Hydrophilicity
3.2.5 Other Membrane Polymers
3.3 Membrane Elements
3.3.1 Plate and Frame Elements
3.3.2 Tubular Elements
3.3.3 Hollow Fine Fiber Elements
3.3.4 Spiral Wound Elements
3.4 Specialty Membranes and Elements
3.4.1 Specialty Membranes
3.4.1.1 Dry Membranes
3.4.1.2 Boron-Rejecting Membranes
3.4.2 Specialty Elements
3.4.2.1 Sanitary Elements
3.4.2.2 Disc Tube Elements
3.4.2.3 Vibratory Shear Enhanced Processing (VSEP) Elements and System
3.4.2.4 Ultra-High Pressure and High Temperature Elements
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
Section II: System Design and Engineering
Chapter 4 Basic Design Arrangements and Concentration Polarization Guidelines
4.1 Arrays and Stages
4.1.1 Recovery per System Array
4.1.2 Element-By-Element Flow and Quality Distribution
4.1.3 Flux Guidelines
4.1.4 Cross-Flow Velocity Guidelines for Array Design
4.1.5 Concentrate Recycle
4.2 Passes
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
Chapter 5 RO System Design Using Design Software
5.1 RO System Design Guidelines
5.2 Step-by-Step Design—Sample Problem
5.2.1 Step 1—Water Flux
5.2.2 Step 2—Membrane Selection
5.2.3 Step 3—Number of Elements Required
5.2.4 Step 4—System Array
5.3 Design Software
5.3.1 Water Application Value Engine (WAVE)—DuPont Water Solutions
5.3.2 IMSDesign—Hydranautics
5.3.3 Q+ Projection Software LGChem
5.4 Optimum Design Result for the Sample Problem
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
Chapter 6 Design Considerations
6.1 Feed Water Source and Quality
6.1.1 Feed Water Source
6.1.2 Feed Water Quality and Guidelines
6.1.3 pH
6.1.3.1 pH Profile Through an RO System—Alkalinity Relationships
6.1.3.2 pH and Membrane Scaling Potential
6.1.3.3 pH Effects on Solute Rejection and Water Permeability
6.2 System Operations
6.2.1 Pressure
6.2.2 Compaction
6.2.3 Temperature
6.2.4 Balancing Flows
6.2.5 Designing for Variable Flow Demand
6.3 Existing RO System Design Considerations
6.3.1 Changing Membranes
6.3.1.1 Changing Membrane Area
6.3.1.2 Changing Membrane Types
6.3.1.3 Mixing Membrane Types
6.3.2 Increasing Recovery
6.3.3 Changing Feed Water Sources
6.3.4 Reducing Permeate Flow
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
Chapter 7 RO Equipment
7.1 Basic RO Skid Components
7.1.1 Cartridge Filters
7.1.2 High Pressure Feed Pump
7.1.3 Pressure Vessels
7.2 Skid Design Considerations
7.2.1 Piping Materials of Construction
7.2.2 Feed Distribution Headers
7.2.3 Stage-by-Stage Cleaning
7.2.4 Sampling and Profiling/Probing Connections
7.2.5 Instrumentation
7.2.6 Controls and Data Acquisition/Analysis
7.2.6.1 System Control
7.2.6.2 Data Acquisition and Analysis
7.2.7 Designs for Variable Permeate Flow Demand
7.3 Energy Recovery Devices (ERDs)
7.3.1 ERD Types
7.3.2 ERD Applications for RO
7.3.2.1 Single-Stage RO
7.3.2.2 Multi-Stage RO
7.4 Clean-In-Place (CIP) Equipment
7.5 Mobile RO Equipment
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
Section III: Membrane Deposition and Degradation: Causes, Effects, and Mitigation via Pretreatment and Operations
Chapter 8 Membrane Scaling
8.1 What is Membrane Scale?
8.2 Effects of Scale on Membrane Performance
8.3 Hardness Scales
8.3.1 Types of Hardness Scale
8.3.1.1 Carbonate-Based Hardness Scales
8.3.1.2 Sulfate-Based Hardness Scales
8.3.1.3 Other Calcium Scales: Calcium Phosphate and Calcium Fluoride
8.3.2 Mitigation of Hardness Scales
8.3.2.1 Chemical Pretreatment—Acid and Antiscalant Dosing
8.3.2.2 Non-Chemical Pretreatment—Sodium Softening and Nanofiltration
8.3.2.3 Operational Techniques—Flushing, Reverse Flow, and Closed Circuit Desalination
8.4 Silica Scale
8.4.1 Forms and Reactions of Silica
8.4.2 Factors Affecting Silica Scale Formation
8.4.3 Mitigation of Silica Scale
8.5 Struvite
8.5.1 What is Struvite?
8.5.2 Mitigation of Struvite
8.6 Scaling Mitigation Guidelines—Summary
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
Chapter 9 Generalized Membrane Fouling
9.1 What is Membrane Fouling?
9.2 Classification and Measurement of Potential Foulants
9.2.1 Settleable and Supra-Colloidal Particulates
9.2.2 Colloids
9.2.2.1 Measurement of Colloids for RO Applications—Silt Density Index (SDI15)
9.2.2.2 Measure of Colloids—Modified Fouling Indices
9.2.2.3 Summary of Colloidal Fouling Indices
9.2.3 Natural Organic Material (NOM)
9.2.4 Other Organics
9.2.5 Other Foulants: Cationic Coagulants and Surfactants, and Silicone-Based Antifoams
9.2.6 Metals: Aluminum, Iron, Manganese, and Sulfur
9.2.6.1 Aluminum
9.2.6.2 Iron and Manganese
9.2.6.3 Hydrogen Sulfide
9.3 Effects of Fouling on Membrane Performance
9.3.1 Effects of Inorganic Foulants
9.3.1.1 Fouling with Larger Settleable and Supra-Colloidal Solids
9.3.1.2 Cake Layer Surface Fouling with Colloids
9.3.1.3 Feed Channel Fouling
9.3.1.4 Summary of Fouling Effects of Inorganic Particulates and Colloids
9.3.2 Effects of NOM and Other Organics
9.3.2.1 Effects of NOM—Humic Acids
9.3.2.2 Effects of Hydrocarbons
9.3.2.3 Effects of Cationic Coagulants and Surfactants
9.3.2.4 Summary of the Effects of Organic Surfactant and Antifoam Fouling on Membrane Performance
9.4 Pretreatment to Minimize Membrane Fouling
9.4.1 Primary Pretreatment—Clarification for Colloids and Organics (NOM) Removal
9.4.1.1 Coagulation
9.4.1.2 Flocculation
9.4.2 Pressure Filtration: Particles, SDI15, and Organics Removal
9.4.2.1 Multimedia Pressure Filters: Suspended Solids Removal
9.4.2.2 Catalytic Filters: Soluble Iron, Manganese, and Hydrogen Sulfide Removal
9.4.2.3 Carbon Filters: TOC Removal
9.4.2.4 Walnut Shell Filters: Hydrocarbon Oil Removal
9.4.2.5 Cartridge Filters: What is Their Purpose?
9.4.3 Membrane Filtration Turbidity, SDI15, and Metal Hydroxide Removal
9.4.3.1 Membrane Materials and Elements
9.4.3.2 Membrane Filtration Operations—Polymeric Membranes
9.4.3.3 Membrane Filtration as Pretreatment for RO
9.4.4 Nanofiltration (NF): Organics and Color Removal
9.5 Feed Water Quality Guidelines to Minimize Membrane Fouling
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
Chapter 10 RO Membrane Biofouling
10.1 What is RO Membrane Biofouling?
10.2 Factors Affecting Membrane Biofouling
10.2.1 Polyamide RO Membrane Characteristics
10.2.1.1 Membrane Surface Roughness
10.2.1.2 Surface Charge and Zeta Potential
10.2.1.3 Membrane Hydrophilicity
10.2.2 Feed Water Matrix
10.2.2.1 Concentration of Microorganisms and Nutrients
10.2.2.2 Feed Water Ionic Strength and pH
10.2.2.3 Pretreatment Antiscalants
10.2.2.4 Feed Water Organic Concentration and Fouling
10.2.3 RO System Hydrodynamics
10.3 Effects of Biofouling on Membrane Performance
10.3.1 Scale Formation
10.3.2 Hydrodynamic Effects on Performance
10.4 Measurement of Biofouling
10.4.1 Predictive Techniques
10.4.1.1 Assimilable Organic Carbon (AOC)
10.4.1.2 Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) and the Biofilm Formation Rate (BFR)
10.4.2 Plate Counts
10.4.2.1 Heterotrophic Plate Counts (HPC)
10.4.2.2 Total Direct Counts (TDC)
10.5 Mitigation Techniques
10.5.1 Pretreatment
10.5.1.1 Reduction of Feed Water Nutrients and Microorganisms
10.5.2 Disinfection
10.5.2.1 Physiochemical Disinfection Method—Ultraviolet (UV) Light
10.5.2.2 Chemical Disinfection—Oxidizing Biocides
10.5.2.3 Chemical Disinfection—Non-Oxidizing Biocide
10.5.2.4 Biocides Not Recommended for Use with Polyamide RO Membranes
10.5.2.5 Chemical Disinfection—Prospective Biocides for RO
10.5.3 Membrane Cleaning for Biofouling Removal
10.5.4 Membrane “Sterilization”
10.5.5 Biocide Flushing
10.6 Biofouling and Mitigation Summary
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
Chapter 11 Membrane Degradation
11.1 Chemical Degradation
11.1.1 Polyamide Layer Degradation—Oxidation
11.1.1.1 Chlorine
11.1.1.2 Chloramine
11.1.1.3 Chlorine Dioxide
11.1.2 Polysulfone Support Layer Degradation
11.1.3 Polyester Fabric Degradation—Hydrolysis
11.1.4 Prevention of Chemical Damage
11.1.4.1 Removal of Oxidizers
11.1.4.2 Protection of Membrane Support Layers
11.2 Mechanical Damage
11.2.1 Physical Membrane Damage Due to Abrasion
11.2.2 Physical Membrane Damage Resulting from Operational Factors
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
Section IV: System Monitoring, Normalization, and Troubleshooting
Chapter 12 Data Collection and Normalization
12.1 Data Collection
12.2 Data Normalization
Symbols
Subscripts
Nomenclature
References
Chapter 13 Membrane Issues and Troubleshooting
13.1 Observed Performance Issues
13.1.1 High Permeate Solute Concentration
13.1.1.1 Increase in Feed Water Concentration of Ions
13.1.1.2 Hardness Scaling
13.1.1.3 Membrane Damage
13.1.1.4 Temperature Increase/Pressure Decrease
13.1.1.5 System Operations and Mechanical Issues
13.1.2 Changes in Permeate Flow
13.1.3 Changes in Feed Pressure
13.1.4 High Differential Pressure
13.2 Common Causes of Performance Failures
13.2.1 Mechanical Failures
13.2.2 RO Equipment Design
13.2.3 Operational Problems
13.2.4 Feed Water Quality Issues
13.2.5 Membrane Issues
13.3 Troubleshooting Techniques
13.3.1 Mechanical Inspection
13.3.2 Cartridge Filter Inspection
13.3.3 Water Analyses
13.3.4 RO Projections
13.3.5 Profiling and Probing
13.3.5.1 Profiling
13.3.5.2 Probing
13.3.6 Normalized Data Analysis
13.3.7 Autopsy
13.3.7.1 Visual Inspection—External
13.3.7.2 Visual Inspection—Internal
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
Section V: Off-Line Activities: Membrane Cleaning, Flushing, and Layup
Chapter 14 Membrane Cleaning
14.1 When to Clean
14.2 Cleaning Chemicals
14.2.1 High pH Cleaning
14.2.2 Low pH Cleaning
14.3 Cleaning Equipment Design
14.3.1 Design of the RO Skid for Effective Cleaning
14.3.2 Design of the Cleaning Skid
14.3.2.1 Cleaning Tank
14.3.2.2 Cartridge Filters
14.3.2.3 Cleaning Pump
14.4 Cleaning Techniques
14.4.1 Conventional Cleaning
14.4.2 Two-Phase Cleaning
14.4.3 Reverse Cleaning
14.4.4 Preventative Cleaning
14.4.4.1 Extrapolative Preventative Cleaning
14.4.4.2 Direct-Osmosis High-Salinity (DO-HS) On-Line Cleaning Technique
14.5 Determining the Efficacy of Cleaning
14.6 Clean-In-Place (CIP) Versus Offsite Cleaning
14.6.1 CIP
14.6.2 Off-Site Cleaning
14.7 Membrane Disinfection
14.7.1 Hydrogen Peroxide/Peroxyacetic Acid
14.7.2 Non-Oxidizing Biocides
14.7.2.1 DBNPA
14.7.2.2 Isothiazolones—CMIT/MIT
14.7.2.3 Other Non-Oxidizing Biocides
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
Chapter 15 Controlling Off-Line Membrane Deposition via Flushing and Layup
15.1 Membrane Flushing
15.1.1 End of Service Flush
15.1.2 Stand-By Flush
15.1.3 Return to Service Flush
15.2 Membrane Layup
15.2.1 Short-Term Layup
15.2.2 Long-Term Layup
15.2.2.1 Sodium Metabisulfite (SMBS)
15.2.2.2 DBNPA
15.2.2.3 CMIT/MIT
15.3 Membrane Preservation
Nomenclature
References
Section VI: Sustainability and Future Prospects
Chapter 16 Concentrate Management
16.1 Discharge
16.1.1 Discharge to Surface Waters
16.1.2 Discharge to Sewer
16.1.3 Discharge to On-Site Treatment Facility
16.1.4 Deep Well Injection
16.2 Land Application
16.2.1 Irrigation
16.2.2 Evaporation Ponds
16.3 Reuse
16.3.1 Direct Reuse
16.3.1.1 Wash Down Systems
16.3.1.2 Cooling Tower Make-Up
16.3.2 Treated Concentrate for Reuse—Brine Minimization
16.3.2.1 Recovery RO Systems
16.3.2.2 Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD)
16.4 Off-Site Disposal
16.5 Emerging Technologies for Concentrate Management
16.5.1 Membrane Distillation (MD)
16.5.2 Forward Osmosis (FO)
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
Chapter 17 High-Recovery Reverse Osmosis
17.1 Single-Step High Recovery Processes
17.1.1 Closed Circuit RO (CCRO)
17.1.1.1 Managing Scale Formation
17.1.1.2 Managing Membrane Fouling
17.1.1.3 Energy Savings
17.1.2 Osmotically-Assisted RO (OARO)
17.1.3 Pulse Flow RO (PFRO™)
17.1.4 Feed Flow Reversal (FFR)
17.2 Enhanced High Recovery Processes with Interstage Solute Precipitation
17.2.1 Intermediate Concentrate Demineralization (ICD)
17.2.2 Accelerated Seeded Precipitation (ASP)
17.3 Multi-Step High Recovery Membrane Processes
17.3.1 Toward Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD)
17.3.2 Challenging Waters and Wastewaters
17.3.3 Commercialized Multi-Step, High-Recovery RO Processes
17.3.3.1 Optimized Pretreatment and Unique Separation (OPUS®)
17.3.3.2 High Efficiency Reverse Osmosis (HERO®)
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
Chapter 18 New and Alternative Membrane Materials For Sustainability
18.1 Specific Requirements to Improve Sustainability
18.1.1 Membrane Performance
18.1.2 Fouling Resistance
18.1.3 Chlorine (Oxidant) Tolerance
18.1.4 Energy-Water Nexus
18.2 Membrane Materials to Meet RO Demineralization Challenges
18.2.1 Modification of Polyamide Interfacial Polymerization (IP) Preparation Chemistries and Techniques
18.2.2 Membrane Surface Modifications
18.2.3 Nanotechnology and Nanoparticle Membranes
18.2.3.1 Carbon Nanotube (CNT) Nanocomposite Membranes
18.2.3.2 Thin Film Nanoparticle (TFN) Membranes
18.2.4 Graphene Oxide (GO)-Based Membranes
18.2.5 Biomimetic Aquaporin Membranes
Symbols
Nomenclature
References
Index
EULA