Researching Cybercrimes: Methodologies, Ethics, and Critical Approaches

✍ Scribed by Anita Lavorgna (editor), Thomas J. Holt (editor)

• Publisher: Palgrave Macmillan
• Year: 2021
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 548
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

This edited book promotes and facilitates cybercrime research by providing a cutting-edge collection of perspectives on the critical usage of online data across platforms, as well as the implementation of both traditional and innovative analysis methods. The accessibility, variety and wealth of data available online presents substantial opportunities for researchers from different disciplines to study cybercrimes and, more generally, human behavior in cyberspace. The unique and dynamic characteristics of cyberspace often demand cross-disciplinary and cross-national research endeavors, but disciplinary, cultural and legal differences can hinder the ability of researchers to collaborate. This work also provides a review of the ethics associated with the use of online data sources across the globe. The authors are drawn from multiple disciplines and nations, providing unique insights into the value and challenges evident in online data use for cybercrime scholarship. It is a key text for researchers at the upper undergraduate level and above.

✦ Table of Contents

Researching
Cybercrimes
Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
Editors and Contributors
List of Figures
List of Tables
PartI Knowledge Production and Research Datafication in Cybercrime Research
1 Epistemologies of Cyberspace: Notes for Interdisciplinary Research
Introduction
Background
Epistemologies of Science
Two Cultures of Debate
Bridging the Divide
The Road Forward: Multidisciplinary and Interdisciplinary Pathways
Socio-Technical Approaches in Cybercrime Research: Examples of Interdisciplinarity
Conclusions
References
2 The How and Why of Cybercrime: The EU as a Case Study of the Role of Ideas, Interests, and Institutions as Drivers of a Security-Governance Approach
Introduction
Background
Critical Perspectives on Cybercrime as a Political Issue
Phase 1: Foundations of EU Cybercrime Policy
Phase 2: Institutionalization and Expansion, with Lingering Problems
Phase 3: Cybercrime, Hybrid Threats, and the Blurring of Cybersecurity
Conclusion
References
3 Programming the Criminologist: Developing Cyber Skills to Investigate Cybercrime
Introduction
Background
Software Engineering for Criminologists
A Software Engineer’s Toolkit
Programming Language(s)
Source Code Editor / Integrated Development Environment (IDE)
Version control
Databases
Where to Look for More Help
Data Science for Criminologists
A Data Scientist’s Toolkit
Software Tools
Data Cleaning
Structuring, Filtering, and Clustering Data
Data Visualization
An Example of Applied Digital Criminology
Conclusion
References
4 Profiling and Predictions: Challenges in Cybercrime Research Datafication
Introduction
Big Data in Cybercrime Research
Automated Data Analyses
Profiling and Predictions
Challenges
Methodological Challenges
Practical Challenges
Ethical Challenges
Conclusions
References
5 Data-Driven Technologies in Justice Systems: Intersections of Power, Data Configurations, and Knowledge Production
Introduction
The Proliferation of Data-Driven Algorithms
Re-orientating Cybercrime Research and Policy
Predictive Algorithms in Justice Systems
Predictive Algorithms as Mechanisms of Cost-Effective Risk Management
Generalizations
Obfuscations
Flawed Inferences
Predictive Algorithms as Mechanisms Scientific Criminal Justice
Predictive Algorithms as Surveillance Mechanisms
Conclusion
References
PartII Methodologies and Strategies for Cybercrime Research
6 The Challenges of Empirically Comparing Cybercriminals and Traditional Offenders
Introduction
Background
Challenges of Empirically Comparing Cybercriminals and Traditional Criminals
Finding Comparable Samples
Defining Comparative Groups and Testing Differences
Comparisons Based on Judicial Registration Data of Crime or Criminals
Interaction with Respondents for Surveys Among High-Risk Samples
How to Develop a Comparative Survey
Applying Traditional Theories to Cybercrime in an Empirical Comparison
Conclusion
References
7 Breaking the Walls of Silence: Analyzing Criminal Investigations to Improve Our Understanding of Cybercrime
Introduction
The Dutch Organized Crime Monitor and Cybercrime
Police Data and Cybercrime Research
Opting for Solid and “Older” Evidence
Extensive Analysis of Rich Information
Criminal Groups as Prime Target of Police Operations
An Alternative for Police Data: Reconstructing Case Files Based on Interviews
Proof of the Pudding: Examples of Added Value of Cybercrime Studies Based on Police Investigations
One Case Can Change the Landscape
Changing the Concept of “Organized” in Organized Crime
Mapping Hidden Social Processes
Using Interrogations to Focus on Subcultures
Conclusion
References
8 Using Digital Open Source and Crowdsourced Data in Studies of Deviance and Crime
Introduction
Why Are Crowdsourced and Open Source Data Valuable?
Skills, Techniques, and Tools for Open Source Data Collection in a Digital Age
Data Scraping
Crowdsourcing Data and Solutions
Analysis of Open Source and Crowdsourced Data
Collaboration: The Future Direction in Digital Data Collection and Analysis
References
9 Developing Open-Source Databases from Online Sources to Study Online and Offline Phenomena
Introduction
What Are Open Sources?
Developing Open-Source Databases
Identifying Cases
Codebook Creation
Searching Cases
Coding Cases
Evaluating the Database
Conclusion
References
10 Too Much Data? Opportunities and Challenges of Large Datasets and Cybercrime
Introduction
Background
Large Datasets and Cybercrime Research
Collecting Data
Using the Data
Toolkits
Analyzing Large Datasets
Conclusion
References
11 Use of Artificial Intelligence to Support Cybercrime Research
Introduction
Key Areas of Artificial Intelligence for Cybercrime Research
Facial Recognition Technology for Images and Video
Object and Activity Detection from Images and Video
Audio Event Detection
Author Attribution, Profiling and Information Extraction from Online Textual Posts
Social Network Analysis, Data Mining, and Predictive Policing
Socio-technical Artificial Intelligence
Case Studies
Socio-technical Artificial Intelligence to Analyze the Online Illegal Plant Trade
Cross-lingual Information Extraction from Online Cybercrime Forums
Conclusion
References
12 Honeypots for Cybercrime Research
Introduction
Background
Characterizing Honeypots
Decoy Aspects of Honeypots
Security-Related Aspects of Honeypots
Honeypots in Academia
Computer Sciences
Social Sciences
Criticism of Honeypot Research
Future of Honeypot Research
Conclusion
References
13 Social and Semantic Online Networks
Introduction
Background: Offline and Online Networks
Tracing and Analyzing Online Social and Semantic Networks
Setting Network Boundaries
Network Types
Analyzing Social and Semantic Online Networks at the Macro Level
The Meso Level: Clusters of Actors and Concepts
Nodes Prominence: The Micro Dynamics That Count
Conclusion
References
14 Digital Ethnography in Cybercrime Research: Some Notes from the Virtual Field
Introduction
The Ethnographic Tradition in Criminology
“Going Digital”: Moving Criminological Ethnography Online
Conducting a Digital Ethnography
Epistemological Possibilities at the Crossroads Between Online and Offline Worlds
A Note on Leaving the Digital Field
Conclusion
References
15 The Meme Is the Method: Examining the Power of the Image Within Extremist Propaganda
Introduction
Background
A Picture Is Worth a Thousand Words: Using Memes to Decode Anti-government Extremist Narratives
Tier One: This Is About Waco
Tier Two: The Bundys Are the Bellwether
Tier Three: Civil War 2—Electric Boogaloo
Exploring Beyond the Frame
Practical Considerations of Using Memes in Research
Conclusion
References
PartIII Geographies and Cultures of Ethics in Cybercrime Research
16 Researching Cybercrime in the European Union: Asking the Right Ethics Questions
Introduction
Scope of Ethics on (Cyber)Crime Research in the European Union
Complementing the European Union’s View with Internet Research Ethics’ Insights
Ethics Challenge I: Privacy and Other Legal Issues
Ethics Challenge II: Informed Consent
Ethics Challenge III: Protecting the Participants and Researchers
Conclusions
References
17 Ethical Approaches to Studying Cybercrime: Considerations, Practice and Experience in the United Kingdom
Introduction
Researching Cybercrime
Typology of Cybercrimes
Network of Actors
Where Does the Researcher Fit?
Ethics Landscape
UK Guidelines for Researchers
General Research Ethics
Available Guidance
Ethics Guidelines for Internet Research
Available Guidance
GDPR, Protection of Sensitive Personal Data
Available Guidance
Prevent, Research on Terrorism and Extremism
Available Guidance
Recommendations: Toward Ethics Guidelines for Cybercrime Research
Is It Research?
Does the Researcher Need Support?
Consent
Deception
Secure Access and Storage of Data
Registering Cybercrime with Data Protection Officers, RECs/IRBs and/or External Agencies
Specific Training for Researchers and Reviewers of Cybercrime Ethics Applications
Limitations and Future Research
References
18 Conducting Ethical Research with Online Populations in the United States
Introduction
Background
Current Issues in Cybercrime Research Within the United States
Ethical Guidelines Can Be Problematic Despite Best Intentions
Conclusion
References
19 Investigating the Ethical Boundaries for Online Research in Brazil
Introduction
Short History of the Regulation of Research in Brazil
Ethics in Online Research in Brazil
Informed Consent in Brazil
Privacy of the Research Participant (Concerning Data Transmission and Data Storage)
The Brazilian Data Protection Law Concerning Research
Conclusion
References
20 Ethics and Internet-Based Cybercrime Research in Australia
Introduction
Developments in the Field and Contemporary Issues
Participant Consent
Harm Resulting from Research
Use of Secondary Data, Privacy, and the Public Domain
Conclusion
References
21 Researching Crime and Deviance in Southeast Asia: Challenges and Ethics When Using Online Data
Introduction
Digitalization of Crime and Deviant Behaviour in South Asian and Southeast Asian States
India
Bangladesh
Sri Lanka
Philippines
Myanmar
Vietnam
Challenges Using Digitalized Data
Digital Divide
Concerns with Data Collection
Data Inconsistency
Language and Access Barriers
Ethical Concerns of Research Conducted Through Online Data
Cultural Differences
Data Censoring and Manipulation
Conclusion
References
22 The Ethics of Web Crawling and Web Scraping in Cybercrime Research: Navigating Issues of Consent, Privacy, and Other Potential Harms Associated with Automated Data Collection
Introduction
The Use of Automated Collection Software in Criminology
Navigating the Ethical Minefield of Automated Data Collection in Criminology
Conclusion
References
23 Does the Institution Have a Plan for That? Researcher Safety and the Ethics of Institutional Responsibility
Introduction
Background
Institutional Responsibility in Context: Researching Extremism Online
Awareness of Researcher Risk and Well-being
Researcher Legal Compliance and Operational Security
Conclusions and recommendations
References
24 Engaging with Incels: Reflexivity, Identity and the Female Cybercrime Ethnographic Researcher
Introduction
Background
Reflexivity
Identity
Researching Misogynists
Incels
Research Design
Online Identity: Pre-Empting the Risks as a Woman
Navigating the Misogynistic Terrain
Academic Credibility
Conclusion
References
25 Personal Reflections on Researching Fraud: Challenges Surrounding the Ethics of “Doing”
Introduction
A Background to Researching Fraud
The Challenges Associated with Interviewing Fraud Victims
Trust
Sensitive Nature of the Topic
The Emotional Nature of Interviewing
Powerlessness of Being a Researcher
Understanding What Has Occurred
Expectations of Participation
Conclusion
References
26 At the Intersection of Digital Research and Sexual Violence: Insights on Gaining Informed Consent from Vulnerable Participants
Introduction
Situating the Private in the Public Internet
Addressing the Concerns of “Public” Data About Sexual Violence: Reflections and Advice for Researchers
Conclusion: Lessons and Future Directions
References
Concluding Thoughts
References
Index